Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth's_crust
The abundance of elements in Earth's crust is shown in tabulated form with the estimated crustal abundance for each chemical element shown as mg/kg, or parts per million (ppm) by mass (10,000 ppm = 1%).
The Earth's crust is one "reservoir" for measurements of abundance. A reservoir is any large body to be studied as unit, like the ocean, atmosphere, mantle or crust. Different reservoirs may have different relative amounts of each element due to different chemical or mechanical processes involved in the creation of the reservoir.[1]: 18
Estimates of elemental abundance are difficult because (a) the composition of the upper and lower crust are quite different, and (b) the composition of the continental crust can vary drastically by locality.[2] The composition of the Earth changed after its formation due to loss of volatile compounds, melting and recrystalization, selective loss of some elements to the deep interior, and erosion by water.[3]: 55 The Lanthanides are especially difficult to measure accurately.[4]
Graphs of abundance against atomic number can reveal patterns relating abundance to stellar nucleosynthesis and geochemistry. The alternation of abundance between even and odd atomic number is known as the Oddo–Harkins rule. The rarest elements in the crust are not the heaviest, but are rather the siderophile elements (iron-loving) in the Goldschmidt classification of elements. These have been depleted by being relocated deeper into the Earth's core; their abundance in meteoroids is higher. Tellurium and selenium are concentrated as sulfides in the core and have also been depleted by preaccretional sorting in the nebula that caused them to form volatile hydrogen selenide and hydrogen telluride.[6]
This table gives the estimated abundance in parts per million by mass of elements in the continental crust; values of the less abundant elements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude.[7]
| Z | Element | Symbol | Goldschmidt Classification | Abundance (ppm)[7] | Production tonnes/year[8] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 8 | oxygen | O | Lithophile | 461,000 (46.1%) | |
| 14 | silicon | Si | Lithophile | 282,000 (28.2%) | 7,200,000 |
| 13 | aluminium | Al | Lithophile | 82,300 (8.23%) | 57,600,000 |
| 26 | iron | Fe | Siderophile | 56,300 (5.63%) | 1,150,000,000 |
| 20 | calcium | Ca | Lithophile | 41,500 (4.15%) | |
| 11 | sodium | Na | Lithophile | 23,600 (2.36%) | 255,000,000 |
| 12 | magnesium | Mg | Lithophile | 23,300 (2.33%) | 27,700,000 |
| 19 | potassium | K | Lithophile | 20,900 (2.09%) | |
| 22 | titanium | Ti | Lithophile | 5,650 (0.565%) | 6,600,000 |
| 1 | hydrogen | H | Atmophile | 1,400 (0.14%) | |
| 15 | phosphorus | P | Lithophile | 1,050 (0.105%) | |
| 25 | manganese | Mn | Lithophile | 950 (0.095%) | 16,000,000 |
| 9 | fluorine | F | Lithophile | 585 (0.0585%) | |
| 56 | barium | Ba | Lithophile | 425 (0.0425%) | |
| 38 | strontium | Sr | Lithophile | 370 (0.037%) | 350,000 |
| 16 | sulfur | S | Chalcophile | 350 (0.035%) | 69,300,000 |
| 6 | carbon | C | Atmophile | 200 (0.02%) | 9,700,000,000 |
| 40 | zirconium | Zr | Lithophile | 165 (0.0165%) | 1,460,000 |
| 17 | chlorine | Cl | Lithophile | 145 (0.0145%) | |
| 23 | vanadium | V | Lithophile | 120 (0.012%) | 76,000 |
| 24 | chromium | Cr | Lithophile | 102 (0.0102%) | 26,000,000 |
| 37 | rubidium | Rb | Lithophile | 90 (0.009%) | |
| 28 | nickel | Ni | Siderophile | 84 (0.0084%) | 2,250,000 |
| 30 | zinc | Zn | Chalcophile | 70 (0.007%) | 11,900,000 |
| 58 | cerium | Ce | Lithophile | 66.5 (0.00665%) | |
| 29 | copper | Cu | Chalcophile | 60 (0.006%) | 19,400,000 |
| 60 | neodymium | Nd | Lithophile | 41.5 (0.00415%) | |
| 57 | lanthanum | La | Lithophile | 39 (0.0039%) | |
| 39 | yttrium | Y | Lithophile | 33 (0.0033%) | 6,000 |
| 7 | nitrogen | N | Atmophile | 19 (0.0019%) | 140,000,000 |
| 27 | cobalt | Co | Siderophile | 25 (0.0025%) | 123,000 |
| 21 | scandium | Sc | Lithophile | 22 (0.0022%) | |
| 3 | lithium | Li | Lithophile | 20 (0.002%) | 35,000 |
| 41 | niobium | Nb | Lithophile | 20 (0.002%) | 64,000 |
| 31 | gallium | Ga | Chalcophile | 19 (0.0019%) | 315 |
| 82 | lead | Pb | Chalcophile | 14 (0.0014%) | 4,820,000 |
| 5 | boron | B | Lithophile | 10 (0.001%) | 9,400,000 |
| 90 | thorium | Th | Lithophile | 9.6 (0.00096%) | |
| 59 | praseodymium | Pr | Lithophile | 9.2 (0.00092%) | |
| 62 | samarium | Sm | Lithophile | 7.05 (0.000705%) | |
| 64 | gadolinium | Gd | Lithophile | 6.2 (0.00062%) | |
| 66 | dysprosium | Dy | Lithophile | 5.2 (0.00052%) | |
| 68 | erbium | Er | Lithophile | 3.5 (0.00035%) | |
| 18 | argon | Ar | Atmophile | 3.5 (0.00035%) | |
| 70 | ytterbium | Yb | Lithophile | 3.2 (0.00032%) | |
| 72 | hafnium | Hf | Lithophile | 3.0 (0.0003%) | |
| 55 | caesium | Cs | Lithophile | 3.0 (0.0003%) | |
| 4 | beryllium | Be | Lithophile | 2.8 (0.00028%) | 220 |
| 92 | uranium | U | Lithophile | 2.7 (0.00027%) | 74,119 |
| 35 | bromine | Br | Lithophile | 2.4 (0.00024%) | 391,000 |
| 50 | tin | Sn | Chalcophile | 9.8 (0.00098%) | 280,000 |
| 73 | tantalum | Ta | Lithophile | 2.0 (0.0002%) | 1,100 |
| 63 | europium | Eu | Lithophile | 2.0 (0.0002%) | |
| 33 | arsenic | As | Chalcophile | 1.8 (0.00018%) | 36,500 |
| 32 | germanium | Ge | Chalcophile | 1.5 (0.00015%) | 155 |
| 74 | tungsten | W | Siderophile | 1.25 (0.000125%) | 86,400 |
| 67 | holmium | Ho | Lithophile | 1.3 (0.00013%) | |
| 42 | molybdenum | Mo | Siderophile | 1.2 (0.00012%) | 227,000 |
| 65 | terbium | Tb | Lithophile | 1.2 (0.00012%) | |
| 81 | thallium | Tl | Chalcophile | 0.85 (8.5×10−5%) | 10 |
| 71 | lutetium | Lu | Lithophile | 0.8 (8×10−5%) | |
| 69 | thulium | Tm | Lithophile | 0.52 (5.2×10−5%) | |
| 53 | iodine | I | Lithophile | 0.45 (4.5×10−5%) | 31,600 |
| 49 | indium | In | Chalcophile | 0.25 (2.5×10−5%) | 655 |
| 51 | antimony | Sb | Chalcophile | 0.2 (2×10−5%) | 130,000 |
| 48 | cadmium | Cd | Chalcophile | 0.15 (1.5×10−5%) | 23,000 |
| 80 | mercury | Hg | Chalcophile | 0.085 (8.5×10−6%) | 4,500 |
| 47 | silver | Ag | Chalcophile | 0.075 (7.5×10−6%) | 27,000 |
| 34 | selenium | Se | Chalcophile | 0.05 (5×10−6%) | 2,200 |
| 46 | palladium | Pd | Siderophile | 0.015 (1.5×10−6%) | 208 |
| 83 | bismuth | Bi | Chalcophile | 0.0085 (8.5×10−7%) | 10,200 |
| 2 | helium | He | Atmophile | 0.008 (8×10−7%) | |
| 10 | neon | Ne | Atmophile | 0.0051 (5.1×10−7%) | |
| 78 | platinum | Pt | Siderophile | 0.005 (5×10−7%) | 172 |
| 79 | gold | Au | Siderophile | 0.004 (4×10−7%) | 3,100 |
| 76 | osmium | Os | Siderophile | 0.0015 (1.5×10−7%) | |
| 52 | tellurium | Te | Chalcophile | 0.001 (1×10−7%) | 2,200 |
| 44 | ruthenium | Ru | Siderophile | 0.001 (1×10−7%) | |
| 77 | iridium | Ir | Siderophile | 0.001 (1×10−7%) | |
| 45 | rhodium | Rh | Siderophile | 0.001 (1×10−7%) | |
| 75 | rhenium | Re | Siderophile | 0.0007 (7×10−8%) | 47.2 |
| 36 | krypton | Kr | Atmophile | 0.0001 (1×10−8%) | |
| 54 | xenon | Xe | Atmophile | 3×10−5 (3×10−9%) | |
| 91 | protactinium | Pa | trace | 1.4×10−6 (1.4×10−10%) | |
| 88 | radium | Ra | trace | 9×10−7 (9×10−11%) | |
| 84 | polonium | Po | trace | 2×10−10 (2×10−14%) | |
| 94 | plutonium | Pu | trace | 3×10−11 (3×10−15%) | |
| 93 | neptunium | Np | trace | 3×10−12 (3×10−16%) | |
| 43 | technetium | Tc | trace | 1.35×10−12 (1.35×10−16%) | |
| 89 | actinium | Ac | trace | 6×10−13 (6×10−17%) | |
| 86 | radon | Rn | trace | 4×10−13 (4×10−17%) | |
| 61 | promethium | Pm | trace | 2×10−17 (2×10−21%) | |
| 87 | francium | Fr | trace | 1×10−18 (1×10−22%) | |
| 85 | astatine | At | trace | 3×10−20 (3×10−24%) |
- Abundances of the elements (data page)
- Atmospheric chemistry – Branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the atmosphere is studied
- Clarke number – Relative abundance of elements
- List of chemical elements
- Oklo phenomenon – Naturally occurring uranium self-sustaining nuclear chain reactionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- Primordial nuclide – Nuclides predating the Earth's formation (found on Earth)
- Albarède, Francis (2009-06-25). Geochemistry: An Introduction (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807435.005. ISBN 978-0-521-88079-4.
- Kring, David A. "Composition of Earth's continental crust as inferred from the compositions of impact melt sheets." 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 17-21, 1997, Houston, TX, p. 763.. Vol. 28. 1997. [https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc97/pdf/1084.PDF
- Suess, Hans E.; Urey, Harold C. (1956-01-01). Abundances of the Elements. Vol. 28. pp. 53–74. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53. ISSN 0034-6861.
- Surendra P. Verma , E. Santoyo & Fernando Velasco-Tapia (2002) Statistical Evaluation of Analytical Methods for the Determination of Rare-Earth Elements in Geological Materials and Implications for Detection Limits, International Geology Review, 44:4, 287-335, DOI: 10.2747/0020-6814.44.4.287 (note geochemists refer to lanthanides as rare earth per ref.)
- "Rare Earth Elements—Critical Resources for High Technology: USGS Fact Sheet 087-02". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- Anderson, Don L.; "Chemical Composition of the Mantle", Theory of the Earth, pp. 147–175 ISBN 0865421234
- ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST AND IN THE SEA, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 97th edition (2016–2017), p. 14-17
- 2016 extraction per Commodity Statistics and Information. USGS. All production numbers are for mines, except for Al, Cd, Fe, Ge, In, N, Se (plants, refineries), S (all forms) and As, Br, Mg, Si (unspecified). Data for B, K, Ti, Y are given not for the pure element but for the most common oxide, data for Na and Cl are for NaCl. For many elements like Si, Al, data are ambiguous (many forms produced) and are taken for the pure element. U data is pure element required for consumption by current reactor fleet Archived 2017-10-01 at the Wayback Machine. WNA.
- Fleischer, Michael (September 1954). "The abundance and distribution of the chemical elements in the earth's crust". Journal of Chemical Education. 31 (9): 446. doi:10.1021/ed031p446. ISSN 0021-9584.
Examines the abundance and distribution of the chemical elements in the earth's crust, as well as the figures and methods that have contributed to this knowledge.
- BookRags, Periodic Table.
- World Book Encyclopedia, Exploring Earth.
- HyperPhysics, Georgia State University, Abundance of Elements in Earth's Crust.
- Eric Scerri, The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2007
- "EarthRef.org Digital Archive (ERDA) -- Major Element Composition of the Core vs the Bulk Earth". earthref.org. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- "GERM Reservoir Database -- Reservoir Data Model". earthref.org. Retrieved 2024-03-22.