Ahmad Sirhindi^{[lower-alpha 1]} (Arabic: أحمد السرهندي, romanized: Aḥmad al-Sirhindī; 1564 – 1624/1625)^[8] was an Islamic scholar, Hanafi jurist, and member of the Naqshbandī Sufi order.^[9][10]

During the lifetime of Ahmad Sirhindi, there were religious heterodox movements within the Mughal court such as Din-i Ilahi, a new religion introduced by emperor Akbar.^[11] Ahmad Sirhindi took an immediate act to counter this doctrine by writing numerous letters towards the ruling elite circles of the Mughal court.^[12] His act of preserving orthodoxy of Islam within subcontinent has cemented his reputation by some followers as a Mujaddid, or a "reviver".^[13][14]

While early and modern South Asian scholarship credited him for contributing to conservative trends in Indian Islam, more recent works, such as Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi^[15] and commentaries from western scholars such as Ter Haar, Friedman, and Buehler, have pointed to Sirhindi's significant contributions to Sufi epistemology and practices.^{[16][17][18][19]}

Sirhindi was born on 26 May 1564 in the village of Sirhind, Punjab to a Punjabi Muslim family.^{[20][3]: 90} A descendant of 13th-century Sufi saint and poet Baba Farid, he claimed ancestry from the second Rashidun caliph, Umar (634–644).^[21][22][23] Sirhindi received most of his early education from his father, 'Abd al-Ahad, his brother, Muhammad Sadiq and from a Lahore-based scholar Muhammad Tahir al-Lahuri.^[24] He also memorised the Qur'an. He then studied in Sialkot, which had become an intellectual centre under the Kashmiri scholar Kamaluddin Kashmiri.^{[3]: 90 [25]} Qazi Bahlol Badakhshani taught him jurisprudence, Muhammad's biography and history.^[26][27] Ahmad Sirhindi also wrote commentary or sharh of Sahih al-Tirmidhi.^[28] He eventually joined the Naqshbandī order through the Sufi missionary Khwaja Baqi Billah when he was 36 years old,^[29] and became a leading master of the order. His deputies traversed the Mughal Empire in order to popularize the order and eventually won favour with the Mughal court.^[30] Sirhindi underwent his first Hajj pilgrimage in 1598, after the death of his father.^[4]

During the reign of emperor Akbar, Ahmad Sirhindi wrote hundreds of letters which were aimed towards his disciples, Mughal nobles, and even the emperor himself, to denounce the participations of Hindu figures in the government.^[31] His efforts influenced Abul Fazl, protegee of emperor Akbar, to support Ahmad Sirhindi in an effort to convince Jahangir, successor of Akbar, to reverse the policies of Akbar of tolerating Hindus in Mughal court.^[31] According to the modern Syrian salafi jurist Ali Al-Tantawi, Ahmad Sirhindi never aspired to depose the emperor despite his fierce criticism; instead he wanted to reform the religious policies of the late emperor so he sent letters inflamed with religious fervor and faith towards young commanders and courtiers and to gather them into his cause to reverse the emperor's religious policy to persuade the emperor.^[32]

Later, during the reign of emperor Jahangir, Ahmad Sirhindi continued his religious discourses by writing a large number of letters to the nobles, particularly towards Shaikh Farid Murtaza Khan, a Mir Bakshi official, to convince the emperor about this religious issue.^[10] It is also known through his letter correspondence with the imperial government figures that Ahmad Sirhindi routinely attended the court debates to counteract some religious beliefs and doctrines which were prevalent in the court.^[33] In the process, it is recorded from these correspondence which compiled in 1617, that Farid Murtaza Khan took Ahmad Sirhindi advices regarding this matter.^[10] Ahmad Sirhindi also wrote a letter to Mughal Emperor Jahangir emphasizing that he is now correcting the wrong path taken by his father, emperor Akbar.^[34]

At some point in his life, Ahmad Sirhindi was once imprisoned.^[35] This happened in 1618,^[4] during the reign of emperor Jahangir, who distanced himself from the Islam orthodoxy and admired Vaishnavite ascetic, Chitrarup.^[36] But later the emperor rectified his order and freed Ahmad Sirhindi.^[37] However, Ahmad Sirhindi was imprisoned once again in 1622, suggested to be due to the jealousy of several nobles for his popularity, before being released again after spending one year in Gwalior prison and another three years in a prison within emperor Jahangir army entourage.^[4]

After his release and restored in favor and honor, Ahmad Sirhindi accompanied emperor Jahangir in his entourage into Deccan Plateau.^[31] Modern Indian historian Irfan Habib considers the efforts of Ahmad Sirhindi to bear success as emperor Jahangir started changing the policies which were criticized by Ahmad Sirhindi.^[10] Ahmad Sirhindi likely stayed to accompany the emperor for three years before his death.^[10] He continued to exercise influence over the Mughal court along with his son, Shaikh Masoom, who tutored the young prince Aurangzeb.^[10] Ahmad Sirhindi finally died in the morning of 10th december of 1624.^[4]

Another son of Ahmad Sirhindi, Khwaja Muhammad Masoom, supported Aurangzeb during the Mughal succession conflict, by sending his two sons, Muhammad Al-Ashraf, and Muhammad Saad Al-Din, to support Aurangzeb in war.^[38] Aurangzeb himself provided Khwaja Muhammad and his youngest son, Muhammad Ubaidullah, with fifteen ships to seek refugee during the conflict to embark for Hajj pilgrimage, and Khwaja Muhammad returned to India after Aurangzeb won the conflict two years later.^[38]

In general, Ahmad Sirhindi viewed that every rituals such as annual prophet anniversary, or any other practices which not documented in Sunnah as forbidden in Islam.^[39] Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi, Islamic scholar, thinker, writer, preacher, reformer and a Muslim public intellectual of 20th century India, has wrote the biography of Ahmad Sirhindi in his book, Rijal al-Fikr wa l-Da'wah fi al-Islam, which covering mostly about the though of Ahmad Sirhindi efforts in revival of Islam and opposition of heresies.^[15] While on another occasion, in a letter to Lãlã Beg(a Subahdar of Bihar^[40]), he regards Akbar's prohibition of cow-slaughter as interference in the religious freedom of Muslims.^[41] Ahmad Sirhindi were recorded to also defying the old tradition of Sujud or prostrating towards the ruler as he viewed this practice as Bid'ah.^[35] Ahmad Sirhindi also repeatedly stated his proud ancestry to Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab in favour of orthodoxy and fierce denunciations of heresies.^[23] He criticized the practices such as Raqs, or Sufi whirling.^[42]>^[43] While also emphasizing the criticism to any rituals or practices that not included in Sharia.^{[42]: 200-201}

MMeanwhile, regarding the Islamic jurisprudence, Ahmad Sirhindi also accept the use of Ijtihad and Qiyas in Islamic Jurisprudence and defended the use of both.^[44][45] Ahmad Sirhindi argued that Qiyas and Itjihad were not included on Bidʻah^[44]

Regarding the Hindu practice, The puritanical Ahmad Sirhindi condemns the though from some Hindu thinkers, such as Hardai Ram, that Bhakti movement were identical with the Islamic mysticism.^[10][46]

The shrine of Ahmad Sirhindi, known as Rauza Sharif, is located in Sirhind, Punjab, India. The societal reforms model within Mughal empire by Ahmad Sirhindi in accordance of individual target to be conveyed by his messages and views were consisted of:^[75]

1. Non-governmental influential class
2. members of the imperial courts
3. King
4. Scholars
5. Heretics and ignorant Sufis
6. Liberal scholars

Due to his fervent orthodoxy, Ahmad Sirhindi followers bestowed him the title of Mujaddid.^[14][21] For his role to the medieval southeast Asia Islamic community, the Islamic politician Muhammad Iqbal called Ahmad Sirhindi as "the Guardian of the wherewithal the Community".^[10] During 16th century, a Pantheism religious movements of Wahdat al wajood that are championed by Dara Shikoh, Sarmad Kashani, and Bawa Lal Dayal.^[56] However, these movement were opposed by Ahmad Sirhindi, Khwaja Muhammad Masum and Ghulam Yahya.^[56] Ahmad Sirhindi are noted as being influential here as his release of strong criticism of Ibn Arabi pantheism caused the movement received setbacks.^[45]

According to Mohammad Yasin in his work, A Social History of Islamic India, the impact of Ahmad Sirhindi in Muslim community in 17th century for reversing the spread of heterodox thinking were seen as huge success.^[76] Yohanan Friedmann has noted that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical though of Ahmad Sirhindi has inspired the religious orthodoxy of emperor Aurangzeb.^[77][78] This was noted by how Ahmad Sirhindi manage to influence the successor of emperor Akbar, starting from Jahangir, into reversing Akbar policies such as lifting marriage age limits, mosque abolishments, and Hijra methodology revival which abandoned by his father.^[79] It is noted by historians that this influence has been significantly recorded during the conquest of Kangra under Jahangir, that at the presence of Ahmad Sirhindi who observed the campaign, the Mughal forces had the Idols broken, a cow slaughtered, Khutbah sermon read, and other Islamic rituals performed.^[80] Further mark of Jahangir departure from Akbar secular policy were recorded Terry, a traveller, who came and observed India region between 1616 and 1619, where he found the mosques full of worshippers, the exaltation of Quran and Hadith practical teaching, and the complete observance of Fasting during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr celebrations.^[80]

Gerardus Willebrordus Joannes Drewes argues that the influences of Ahmad Sirhindi idea of Islamic reformation and anti Ibn Arabi's pantheism has spread as far as Aceh, with the indication of how Aceh Sultanate scholar Nuruddin ar-Raniri seems held the similar view with Ahmad Sirhindi regarding he rejection against Ibn Arabi.^[81]

Abul A'la Maududi, modern Hanafite thinker and political activist, were recorded to quote Ahmad Sirhindi role in opposing the "religious impurities" which were introduced by Akbar earlier:

According to Chanfi Ahmed, many historians regards Ahmad Sirhindi as the pioneer of Islamic reformism of Salafism in seventeenth century India.^[83] Although Chanfi Ahmed regards the movement were marked by Shah Waliullah Dehlawi instead.^[83] Gamal al-Banna instead opined that Ahmad Sirhindi were influencing Shah Waliullah Dehlawi in revived the science of Hadith in northern India.^[84] Modern writer Zahid Yahya al-Zariqi has likened Ahmad Sirhindi personal view with Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi, Ibn Taymiyya, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Abd al-Razzaq al-San'ani, and Al-Shawkani, due to his orthodox stance, and his opposition to emperor Akbar in term of religious practice.^[85] This view also similar with the assessment of Salah Shu'air [ar], an Egyptian writer, about the ideas of Sirhindi were similar with the Wahhabism movements which will rise two century after death of Ahmad Sirhindi,^[86] for resurrecting and revival of religious discourses, which also influence in Shsh Waliullah Dehlawi.^[87] While Aḥmad ʻArafāt Qāḍi from Cairo University also likened the though of Ahmad Sirhindi were similar with Ibn Taymiyyah.^[88]

• Mujaddid
• Ali Hujwiri
• Shaykh Yaqub Sarfi Kashmiri