Brooke administration

Fearing that the Iban tribes outnumbered the pre-existing local tribes with detrimental environmental effects on lands intended for shifting cultivation, the Brooke government restricted the Iban people from further migration to other river systems such as the Baleh river. However, the Brooke government allowed the Ibans to settle in other areas such as Lundu, Balingian, Bintulu, Limbang and Baram to consolidate the government's authority there. As a result of this policy, several minority ethnic groups such as Bukitans living along the Batang Lupar River were assimilated into the Iban people, thus contributing to the growth of Iban tribe and the expansion of the Iban language in the state.^[3] The Iban language was taught in schools in the 1940s during the Brooke era.^[5]

1958-1977: Borneo Literature Bureau (BLB) foundation

During the period of Crown Colony of Sarawak, the Iban language was used in government official letters, courts, announcements, and notices. Radio Sarawak, started by the British, offered Iban language programmes. The Iban language, known under the name of "Asian language", was offered as an examination subject in the Sarawak Junior Certificate. The "Asian language" was renamed to "Iban language" in 1963. Borneo Literature Bureau (BLB) was founded by the British in 1958 to collect and document oral Iban literature. BLB published more than 60 Iban language books during its lifetime until 1973 when it was replaced by a Malaysian federal government agency Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP) in 1977. After that, the publication of books in Bornean languages came to a halt.^[6] The publication of the Nendak magazine, which was started by BLB in 1967 also came to a halt.^[7] Jimbun Tawai, the former vice chairman of Sarawak Dayak Iban Association, called this period under Crown Colony as "golden era" of the Iban language.^[8]

1977-2000s post BLB closure

After the closure of BLB, other smaller publishers continue in this niche such as the Kuching-based publishing company named Klasik. Examples of works include ensera (Iban epic story) and cherita kelulu (morality novellas). Christian churches such as the Catholic church publish prayer books that adopt certain aspects of Iban adat (culture). Thus, Christian texts bear greater significance as cultural repositories of the Iban language when to compared to other genres after the demise of BLB.^[7]

State-sponsored media such as Berita Rakyat was founded in 1974 and ended in the 1990s. The magazine was started by Rajang Security Command (RASCOM) in Sibu to defeat the communists' activities in the Rajang basin. The magazine stopped publication after the cessation of Communist insurgency in Sarawak in 1990. Another magazine named Pembrita was published by the Information Department of the state government and was aimed at providing developmental news to the rural Iban populace such as exemplary longhouses, lucrative cash crops, and animal husbandry. The magazine also called on the rural Ibans to modernise their ways of farming. There were no Iban newspapers in the 1990s and early 2000s. The high cost of imported paper materials and low advertising revenues contributed to the difficulties of Iban newspaper publishing.^[7]

Tun Jugah Foundation was established in 1985 after the death of Tun Jugah to record the oral history of the Iban people, producing Iban dictionaries and surveys of the rural-urban migration of the Iban people.^[9][10]

Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) expanded their Iban radio broadcasts to 10 hours on Sundays and 9 hours on rest of the week by the 1980s as WaiFM^[7][2] Cats FM is the first commercial radio station to broadcast in Iban opening in 1997.^[7]

The Iban language was included in the primary school curriculum in 1968 and a few secondary schools in 1988. In 1968-1969, teachers' training colleges offered Iban as an elective subject. It was only in 1988, that Iban was formalised as part of the Malaysian national curriculum.^[5] There are no Iban-medium schools in Sarawak.^[5] In 2008, Iban was taught as an elective language subject in Malaysian Form 5 secondary schools for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) certificate examination.^[2] A survey done in Sarawak in 2008 showed that a total of 367 primary schools and 55 secondary schools have taught the Iban subjects since 1968. The number of primary schools offering the Iban language subject increased to 1,264 in 2015 while the number of secondary schools reduced to 52 in 2015. Most of the schools are located in Kapit, Sibu, Sri Aman, and Sarikei Divisions where there are significant Iban population. The Iban language subject is also offered in undergraduate programmes in two teachers' institutions in Sarawak. In Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, the Iban language is offered as a minor subject for Iban students majoring in Malay studies.^[2]

In 2003, Malaysian federal authorities banned the Iban Bible (known as Bup Kudus in Iban) as its use of the word Allah overlaps with the use of Allah (Taala) as the name of the God worshipped in Islam (Islam given official status on the Federation level) which the federal government argues can "confuse" the Muslim populace in the state. The ban was lifted by the then deputy prime minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi after persistent protests.^[7][11]

2010-present: emergence of vernacular mass media

Newspapers The Borneo Post and Utusan Borneo started Iban language sections in 2010^[12] and 2014 respectively.^[2][13] The Borneo Post stopped the Iban section in 2017.^[14] A monthly Iban magazine named Pegari was also published by a small company named PEGARI Iban Production from 2012 to 2018.^[2][15][16] Borneo Media Solutions, a subsidiary of PEGARI Iban Production, also published several books in Iban language.^[17]

RTM opened their first Borneo-oriented channel TVi in 2011 which later became TV Okey in 2018 which includes a 30-minute Iban news slot.^[18][19] TV Sarawak started the Iban language section in October 2020.^[20]

Consonants

Iban has the following consonant inventory:^[29]

Vowels

Iban has a six-vowel system, with five cardinal vowels plus schwa:^[30]

Vowel sounds are nasalized when preceded by a nasal consonant.^[30]

Personal pronouns

Iban has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we, and distinguishes singular, dual, and plural.^[31]

Sample

• Ke nuan 'for you'
• Ke aku 'for me'
• Ke kami 'for us'
• Bup aku 'my book'
• Bakih aku 'my friend'
• Apai aku 'my father'
• Gamal nuan 'your look'
• Sulu nuan 'your beloved'
• Sekula kami 'our school'
• Ke pangan aku 'for my beloved'
• Ke anak aku 'for my child'
• Ari indai di 'from your mother'
• Ari bakih aku 'from my friend'

Pronouns are primarily put after subjects.

Possessive pronouns

Sample phases:

• baju tu engku 'This shirt is mine.'
• Tu enggi nuan 'This is yours.'
• Siti nyin enggi tua 'That one belongs to both of us.'

Demonstrative determiners

There are three demonstrative determiners in Iban. Tu 'this, these' is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker, nya 'that, those' is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker, and nyin, which is the furthest from the speaker.

These words can also act as demonstrative pronouns where they can stands on theirs own, replacing rather than modifying a noun.

Example:

• Nyamai tu. 'This is good.'
• Ok meh nya. 'That's ok.'
• Peda di nyin dih. 'Look at that.'

Demonstrative pronouns

In Iban, demonstrative pronouns are words that show which person or thing is being referred in relation to the location of the addressee to the speaker. There are three demonstrative pronouns in Iban depending on location to the speaker. They can only be used to refer to an addressee (human) and cannot be used to refer to inanimate objects.

Examples:

• Nama gaga iya tu baka nya? 'Why is this person acting in such a way?'
• Kini ke iya nya tadi? 'Where is he going?' (Referring to the second closest person to the speaker)
• Ni iya nyin tadi dih? 'Where is the other (person) one?' (referring to third person which is the furthest from the speaker)

Adverbs

Interrogative words

Iban also has a few interrogative words: sapa, nama, ni, lapa, kemaya and berapa.

• Sapa – Who

• Nama – What

• Ni – Where (Dini and Ba ni also used to ask for specific location)

• Lapa – Why (Nama kebuah also used.)

• Kemaya – When

• Berapa – How many

• Bakani – How

Dialect comparison

Sample text (Luke 2:10-11)

Mualang

10 Baroꞌ mlikat Tuhan Allah madah ke sidaꞌ: “Nang kitaꞌ takot! Ku madah brita bayek ari Tuhan Allah ke kitaꞌ, te nyuroh gaga ugaꞌ bansa.

11 Malam toꞌ de kuta Daod^e udah adai Penyelamat kitaꞌ, Al Maseh Raja te dedanyi Tuhan Allah, nyaꞌ mah Tuhan.

Iban

10 Tang ku melikat nya bejaku ngagai sida, “Anang takut! Laban aku mai ngagai kita Berita Manah ti ngasuh ati semua mensia gaga:

11 sehari tu, di nengeri David, Juruselamat kita udah ada, iya nya Kristus ti Tuhan!

Sample phases in Iban Remun

• Entai ku ngilau – Nadai aku meda. ('I did not see it.')
• Entauk ku badak – Enda ku nemu. ('I don't know.')

Numbers

Family

For extended family in Iban

Example;

• Anak buah bini ku nya. 'That is my wife's nibling.'
• Anak buah ke indu laki ku nya. 'That is my husband's niece.'
• Entua laki ku nya. 'That is my husband's parent-in-law.'
• Entua ke laki laki ku nya. 'That is my husband's father-in-law.'
• Petunggal bini ku nya. 'That is my wife's cousin.'

Days

Example:

• Tulat tua betemu. 'We'll meet again the third day.'

• Ensanus ku bisi meda iya 'I saw him two days ago.'

Months

The Iban calendar is one month ahead of the Gregorian calendar as follows:

Sample phrases

Genesis 1:1–3

Human Rights

English: Article 1 – All human beings are born free and equal in rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Malay: Perkara 1 – Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan sama dalam hak. Mereka dikurniakan akal dan hati nurani dan harus bertindak antara satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.

Standard Iban: Pekara 1 : Semua mensia ada meratai enggau hak ke sebaka. Sida diberi pemikir enggau ati tuchi lalu patut begulai enggau diri sama diri dalam serakup entara bala menyadi.

Balau Iban Dialect: Pekaha 1 : Semua mensia ada bebas enggau hak ti sebaka. Sida dibehi pikih enggau ati behesi alu patut begulai enggau dihi sama dihi dalam gehempung entaha bala menyadi.

Other Iban Dialect: Pekaro 1 : Semuo mensio ado bebas enggau hak ti sebako. Sida diberi pikir enggau ati tuchi lalu patut begulai enggau diri samo diri dalam serakup entaro balo menyadi.

Pikaro 1 : Simuo minsio ado bibas nggau hak ti sibako. Sida dibiri pikir enggau ati tuchi lalu patut bigulai nggau diri samo diri dalam sirakup intaro balo minyadi.