History of Kengtung

Kengtung was founded as a city by King Mangrai of Ngoenyang in 1253^[1] and later became part of the Tai Yuan Kingdom of Lanna, which encompasses modern Northern Thailand. In 1350, King Phayu of Lanna sent his son to rule Kengtung. His dynasty would continue to rule Kengtung for another six hundred years until 1959. Kengtung later freed itself from Lanna and developed its own ethno-cultural entity as Tai Khun people. In 1558, the Kingdom of Lanna fell to King Bayinnaung of the Burmese Toungoo dynasty. The ruler of Kengtung submitted to the Burmese rule.^[2] The Burmese court appointed the local ruler of Kengtung, who had descended from the Mangrai clan, as Saopha under Burmese domination.

In the late eighteenth century to early nineteenth century, Lanna had freed itself from Burmese domination and came under Siamese rule. The Lanna Lords adopted the policy of “Picking vegetables into baskets, putting men in towns”^[3] to wage wars to seek manpower. The Northern Tai states of Kengtung and Chiang Hung, known collectively in Thai sources as "Lü-Khün", were the main victims of forced resettlement policy to repopulate the Lanna region, which had been ravaged by prolonged warfare. In 1802, Phraya Kawila of Chiang Mai sent his younger brother Phraya Uparaj Thammalangka to capture Mong Hsat and Kengtung, forcibly deporting thousands of Khun people from Kengtung and Mong Hsat to resettle in Chiang Mai.^[4] Sao Kawng Tai, the then saopha of Kengtung, fled and later submit to Chiang Mai authority in 1804. Maha Khanan, younger brother of Sao Kawng Tai, established himself at Mong Yawng as an independent ruler. Maha Khanan endured many invasions from Burma, who sought to reclaim Kengtung. After the protracted guerilla warfare, Maha Khanan decided to accept the Burmese suzerainty in 1813^[3] and Kengtung once again came under Burmese rule.

Dynastic conflicts in Chiang Hung

Khun Chueang or Phaya Chueang founded the city of Chiang Hung of Chiang Rung (modern Jinghong) and the Tai Lue confederacy of Sipsongpanna (Twelve “pannas”, corresponding to modern Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture) in around 1180.^[5] Sipsongpanna was incorporated into the Lanna Kingdom by King Mangrai. The Mongols of Yuan dynasty invaded Sipsongpanna and Chiang Hung surrendered to the Mongols in 1296. The subsequent Ming and Qing appointed the Tai Lue rulers of Chiang Hung as native governor or Tusi with the title of "Chēlǐ Pacification Commissioner" (Chinese: 車里宣慰使 pinyin: Chēlǐ xuānwèishǐ).^[5] The city of Chiang Hung was known as Chēlǐ (Chinese: 車里). The Chinese sent a seal to confirm the rulers of Sipsongpanna. In 1563, King Bayinnaung of Burma captured Chiang Hung. The Burmese and the Chinese agreed on the joint domination over Sipsongpanna, whose ruler was enthroned in a ceremony in which both Burmese and Chinese representatives jointly presided.^[6] "China was the father, Burma was the mother."^[5] The rulers of Chiang Hung then had to seek confirmation from both China and Burma.

In 1802, Prince Mahavong the ruler of Chiang Hung died. His two-year-son Prince Tsau Mahanavi^[5] was confirmed to succeed his father under the regency of Prince Tsau Mahavang,^[5] who had been Mahanavi's uncle. When Mahanavi reached maturity in 1817, he personally assumed the governorship. King Bodawpaya summoned Prince Mahanavi of Chiang Hung to Amarapura to confirm his submission. Mahanavi did not go and sent his uncle Mahavang to go to Amarapura instead. King Bodawpaya was angered at Mahanavi's defiance and enfeoffed Mahavang to replace his nephew as the ruler of Chiang Hung.^[5] The civil war between Tsau Mahanavi and Tsau Mahavang in Sipsongpanna ensued for decades. In 1834, the Qing, who supported Mahavang, managed to chase Mahanavi off Chiang Hung. Mahanavi fled and died.

In 1836, Prince Mahavang of Chiang Hung died. His son Tsau Suvanna^[5] was made to succeed him and Mahavang's another younger son Amaravuth was made Uparaj or heir.^[7] However, his nemesis Mahanavi had left a son named Nokham. Prince Nokham gained support from the Burmese court under King Tharrawaddy Min to support him against Suvanna. King Tharawaddy Min of Burma sent the Burmese Sitke general to lead a Burmese army of 3,000 men to invade Chiang Hung and to put Nokham on the Tai Lue throne in 1836. Lady Pinkaew, wife of Mahavang and mother of Suvanna and Amaravuth, bribed^[7] the Burmese Sitke to retreat. The Sitke general captured Chiang Hung and made Nokham the ruler of Chiang Hung. Seven days after, Lord Mahachai of Mengpeng who was a supporter of Suvanna led troops to recapture Chiang Hung. The Burmese general then feigned retreat along with Nokham as he was bribed by Lady Pinkaew. Mahachai of Mengpeng restored Suvanna to the throne of Chiang Hung.

Prince Nokham did not give up. He persuaded King Tharrawaddy to send another army of 10,000 men to capture Chiang Hung again in his favor in 1838. Four years later in 1842, the Qing authorities in Yunnan encouraged Mahachai of Mengpeng to successfully retake Chiang Hung and restore Suvanna to the throne for the second time. This time Suvanna managed to secure confirmation from the Burmese Ava court. Everything seemed peaceful until Nokham took Chiang Hung again in 1849.^[7] Prince Suvanna fled to Ava. His brother Amaravuth and his mother Pinkaew took refuge in Luang Phrabang, which had been under Siamese suzerainty. Mahachai fled to Vieng Phouka. King Sukkhasoem of Luang Phrabang then sent the Tai Lue royals; Amaravuth, Lady Pinkaew and Mahachai to Bangkok.^[7]

First Expedition (1852–1853)

Chao Phraya Yommaraj Nuch left Bangkok with his army in October 1852. He proceeded through Kamphaengphet and Tak, drafting the conscripted militias along the way. Yommaraj Nuch reached Chiang Mai on December 19, 1852, where he recruited Lanna forces. Prince Vongsathirat Sanid left Bangkok November 13, 1852, with his army. He proceeded through Nakhon Sawan, Phitsanulok, reaching Nan in January 1853. He was reinforced and supplied by Chao Phraya Mongkol Vorayot the ruler of Nan. Yommaraj Nuch and his Lanna-Siamese army left Chiang Mai for Chiang Saen in February. Prince Vongsathirat Sanid eventually reached Chiang Saen on February 17. Chao Phraya Yommaraj Nuch followed to Chiang Saen three days later. The prince ordered Chao Phraya Yommaraj Nuch to be his vanguard, with the joint Bangkok-Chiang Mai army of total 5,042 men, who left first from Chiang Saen to Mong Hpayak on February 24.

Chao Phraya Yommaraj Nuch, with Lanna commanders Uparaj Phimphisan and Phraya Burirattana, managed to capture Mong Hsat in March. They proceeded to lay siege on Kengtung on March 10, 1853, taking position on a hill to the southeast of Kengtung and shelled the city with their canons. In the Battle of Kengtung, again, Maha Khanan of Kengtung led the defense against Siamese-Lanna intruders on March 17. The Siamese-Lanna had problems with manpower shortage as they were unable to completely encircle the city of Kengtung in the siege. Another issue was that Kengtung was a hill fort and the Siamese occupied relative lowland positions, complicating the abilities of their canons to inflict damages onto the higher elevations.

Prince Vongsathirat Sanid also ordered Chao Phraya Mongkol Vorayot of Nan to lead the Nan armies to Chiang Hung. Phraya Mongkol Vorayot marched his army to reach Mengpeng in February, where he sent his men to Chiang Hung to meet Tsau Suvanna of Chiang Hung and Qing delegates.

Prince Vongsathirat Sanid followed his vanguard and marched through Mong Hpayak to reach Kengtung. Yommarach Nuch ordered Lanna regiment to assault on Kengtung city walls but were repelled by Maha Khanan. After seven days of battle, Kengtung did not yield and the Siamese-Lanna decided to retreat on March 23, 1853. Yommaraj Nuch marched his army back to Chiang Mai with himself going further down south to Tak, while Prince Vongsathirat Sanid retreated back to Nan.^[8] As the rainy season approached, which would further cripple the warfare, Prince Vongsathirat Sanid then asked the king to try another expedition in the dry season next year.

Second Expedition (1853–1854)

Prince Vongsathirat Sanid took the rainy season break at Nan and Chao Phraya Yommaraj Nuch at Tak. King Mongkut sent Chao Phraya Sri Suriyawongse to bring ammunitions and supplies to the north.^[8] Sri Suriyawongse and Yommaraj Nuch traveled to meet Prince Vongsathirat Sanid at Uttaradit, where they planned for the incoming second expedition to Kengtung, in November 1853. Chao Phraya Sri Suriyawongse then returned to Bangkok. The Siamese spent their time in Lanna farming grains for supplies during the rainy season of 1853. The Burmese, however, managed to get Burmese and Shan troops from Mongnai to garrison at Kengtung to be additional forces.

Prince Vongsathirat Sanid resumed the campaigns in dry season of the year 1853-1854.^[8] Vongsathirat Sanid and Mongkol Vorayot marched from Nan in January 1854 through Mong Yawng and Yommarah Nuch through Mong Hpayak to converge on and to lay siege to Kengtung for the second time, reaching Kengtung in March 1854. Kengtung was well reinforced by the Burmese and Shan regiments and was even better at repelling Siamese attacks. As he ran out of food supplies and gunpowder, Prince Vongsathirat Sanid finally decided to retreat from Kengtung on March 18 to Nan. However, the Burmese, upon seeing the Siamese retreat, inflicted the counter-offensive on retreating Siamese troops. Chao Phraya Mongkol Vorayot of Nan then acted as rearguard to defend the Siamese armies against the Burmese counter-attacks. Prince Vongsathirat Sanid retreated safely to Nan in 1854. Yommaraj Nuch, who had marched halfway to Kengtung, retreated to Chiang Mai upon learning of the prince's defeat.

The Siamese then realized that the unfamiliar mountainous geography and great distance from Bangkok deemed the Siamese occupation of Kengtung unlikely. King Mongkut ordered Prince Vongsathirat Sanid and Chao Phraya Yommaraj Nuch to pull the troops back to Bangkok in 1854.^[8]

The Tai Lue royalties had been staying in Luang Phrabang and Nan. A Qing delegated arrived in Luang Phrabang requesting for the return of Amaravuth, Lady Pinkaew and Mahachai to Chiang Hung.^[8] The Bangkok court conceded and the Tai Lue royals eventually returned to their homeland. The dynastic conflicts among the Tai Lue royals continued, however, as Mahachai later killed Amaravuth and Tsau Suvanna, in turn, had Mahachai executed.

British acquisition of Kengtung

At the ascension of the last Burmese king Thibaw, the Shan saophas were dissatisfied with the rule of the new Burmese king.^[1] Sao Kawng Tai, another son of Maha Khanan, became the ruler of Kengtung in 1881. Kawng Tai had Burmese representatives in Kengtung murdered^[9] and declared open rebellion against Burma. Kengtung remained defiant to Burma through early 1880s. Saopha Khun Seng of Hsenwi proposed an independent federation of Shan States but Kawng Tai of Kengtung disagreed with this idea, saying that the Shans needed an outsider arbitrator to unite themselves.^[10] In 1885, Kawng Tai of Kengtung, along with Sao Hkun Kyi of Mongnai and other Shan rulers, declared for Burmese Prince Limbin Mintha to be the leader of the Shans and also to be the new king of Burma in the movement called Limbin Confederacy.^[1] The plan was to march onto Mandalay to install Prince Limbin.^[10] However, the Limbin Prince took some time to move from his political refuge at Rangoon to Kengtung and when he arrived in December 1885,^[9] the British had already exiled King Thibaw the last King of Burma and had taken control of Burma at the end of the Third-Anglo Burmese War. Amidst these events, Sao Kawng Tai of Kengtung died in 1886, to be succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Sao Kawn Kham Hpu.

As the British had taken control of cis-Salween Shan States to the west of Salween river by 1889, they sought to bring the trans-Salween states to the east of Salween including Kengtung under their possession. Even though the British had indirectly recognized Salween River as Burma-Lanna border in the Anglo-Siamese Chiangmai Treaties of 1874 and 1883 by saying that;^[11]

His Majesty the King of Siam will cause the Prince of Chiengmai to establish and maintain guard stations, under proper officers, on the Siamese bank of the Salween River, which forms the boundary of Chiengmai belonging to Siam...

meaning that the trans-Salween states to the east of Salween on the 'Siamese bank' belonged to Lanna-Siam by this definition, however, they saw that Kengtung should come under British rule because Kengtung had been a long-time vassal of Burma and Lanna-Siam had not held any authorities over Kengtung. British Burma sent James George Scott to be the British envoy to Kengtung in 1890. Scott took journey from Mongnai to Kengtung by riding a mule, led by Yunnanese Panthay navigators, crossing the Salween river and reaching Kengtung in February 1890.^[9] Kawn Kham Hpu the ruler of Kengtung eventually agreed to accept British rule and to join the durbar of Shan States.^[9] Kengtung, along with the Shan States, became princely states with nominal sovereignty under British rule. The Federated Shan States was created in 1922 to facilitate the transfer of Shan States to the Governor of Burma.