The anti-Ottoman revolts of 1567-1572 were a series of conflicts between Albanian, Greek and other rebels and the Ottoman Empire during the early period 16th century. Social tensions intensified at this time by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, the chronic economic crisis, and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman state authorities. The leaders of the uprisings were initially successful and controlled several strategic locations and fortresses, especially in Epirus, Central Greece, and the Peloponnese. However, the movement lacked the necessary organization. They were instigated and assisted by western powers; mainly by the Republic of Venice, and the victory of the Holy League against the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto, in November 1571, triggered further revolutionary activity. However, Venice withdrew its support to the rebels and signed a unilateral peace with the Ottomans. As such the rebellions were doomed to end and the Ottoman forces committed a number of massacres in the aftermath of the revolt during the suppression of the uprising. Throughout the pacification process, various primarily isolated areas were still out of Ottoman control and new rebellions erupted, like that of Dionysios Skylosophos in 1611.

Social tensions intensified by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, as well as chronic economic crisis and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman authorities. Under this context during the 16th century various Orthodox communities lost their social and economic privileges that had been formerly recognized by Ottoman decrees.^[1] Additionally, extensive imposition of extraordinary taxation by the Ottoman authorities in the Greek mainland and forced conscription to meet the increased demand of the Ottoman navy further deteriorated the situation.^[1] Instances of widespread destruction of churches and systematic plundering of religious property were also recorded in contemporary sources.^[1]

As a result of this kind of intensified oppression and arbitrary rule the local populations hoped for a military intervention by a Christian power.^[1] Under this context news arrived that the fleet of the Holy League will advance towards Greek inhabited regions of the Ottoman Empire.^[2] Representatives of the Greek communities made several appeals for assistance against Ottoman rule.^[3] Additionally, the Greek diaspora at Venice, Naples and in other western European cities also hoped for an armed struggle that would end Ottoman rule.^[4] As such armed preparations to overthrow Ottoman authorities had begun among the Greek communities in the Ottoman Empire.^[5]

Various Greek representatives from the Peloponesse, such as Petros Menagias and Georgios Meizoteros, as well as Ioannis Varelis and Ioannis Akkidas have become active agents for the Spanish Empire. In various spying missions they contacted with religious figures in the area. In Corfu Alexios Rartouros was also cooperating with the Spanish and came in contact with various nobles from Epirus; Nikolaos Malmniotis and Michael Kolouris. Mani, a region known for his frequent revolts against the Ottoman authorities has received both Venetian and Spanish agents. However, Spanish involvement in Ottoman ruled Greek regions inevitably triggered Venetian concerns.^[6] With the outbreak of the Ottoman–Venetian War in spring 1570 Venice decided that drastic action was needed especially after the Ottoman attack on Cyprus. Venetian policy also dictated the need of support towards revolutionary movements among the Greek populations.^[7] Under this context the Greek diaspora leaving in Venice proved crucial and mobilization within the local Greek Brotherhood was intense.^[8] One prominent of its prominent members scholar Grigorios Malaxos, suggested fomenting a revolutionary movement in Greek territory, which would be supported by the Ecumenical Patriarch Metrophanes III.^[9]

John of Austria also send agent to various Greek regions for the preparations of revolutionary activity.^[10]

The Battle of Lepanto took place off the coast of Patras in the Ionian Sea on 10-14 November 1571. A significant number of Greeks participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League, while three Venetian galleys were commanded by Greek captains.^[38] Additionally many Greek rowers serving on Turkish galleys managed to seize them with mutiny and deliver them in time to the Christian allies.^[39]

The Battle of Lepanto resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman fleet by the Holy League. As a result Greek-Venetian activities reached a new momentum and the leaders of the Orthodox Greek communities continued to invest their resources and energy for the purpose of uprooting Ottoman rule.^[38]

News of the Christian victory spread immediately in the nearby region of Patras where the inhabitants rejoiced in the destruction of the Ottoman fleet. The local metropolitan bishop, Germanos, and the local nobility joined the movement. Soon after armed units were formed and expelled the Ottoman garrison.^[40] Meanwhile, some Ottoman crews that managed to flee from the victorious Christian fleet and landed on the nearby coast of Peloponnese were annihilated by the insurgents.^[41] The rebellion was soon spread to nearby regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece, namely Aigio, Galaxidi, Lidoriki and Salona.^[42] Germanos also managed to be in contact with the revolutionaries of Mani as well as the major figures of the Holy League fleet.^[42] Major role in the spread of the movement played the hegumen of the Taxiarchs Monastery at Aigio and the local lord Ioannis Tsernotabeis.^[43]

In Epirus, the combined Greek-Venetian force was again successful at the siege of Margariti .^[44][27] As a result a region stretching south of Gjirokastër down to Parga came under rebel control.^[33] Among the revolutionary leaders, the Stratioti Georgio Renesi became active in Lefkada and Arta.^[45] Moreover, the religious leaders of the Greek communities in and around Ioannina and Aetolia-Akarnania initiated secret communications with the Venetians to overthrow their local Ottoman authorities.^[38]

After the Christian victory a multitude of Greeks went to Spain to seeking support and encouragement for the spread of insurrections and anti-Turkish activities.^[46] Large-scale unrest occurred in additional parts of the Ottoman Empire; in the islands of Aegina and Lefkada the Christian inhabitants rose in revolt, while in Naxos they declined to pay the jizya tax owed by the Christian subjects of the Empire.^[27] Revolts were also noted in the islands such as Andros, Paros, Rodos, Kos, Karpathos, Imbros, Skiathos, Chios, Agios Efstratios and Mitilini, as well as on the Asia Minor coast: at the surroundings of Smyrna, Phocaea and Cesme.^[47] The regions of Thessaly, northern Euboia, and parts of Macedonia, including Thessaloniki and Serres, also witnessed revolutionary activity.^[48] Moreover, incidents of unrest were even reported even at the Ottoman capital Constantinople as soon as the news of the Ottoman defeat reached the city.^[47]

Meanwhile Emmenouel's brother Zorzis Mormoris, commanded units of Stratioti in Margariti, Santa Maura (Lefkada), and Corfu.^[49] The Venetian landing operation in Lefkada at January 31, 1572, was supported by Greek stradioti as well as of units from the Ionian islands, the coast of Epirus and Cretans who had previously fought at Lepanto.^[50] Ottoman reinforcements from the nearby regions soon marched towards Lefkada and Lepanto. Meanwhile at April 18, Ottoman units marched towards the Agia Mavra and Neos Pyrgos garrisons (Rio and Antirrio) at the vicinity of Lepanto,^[51]

Under this context the Greek diaspora living in Venice proved crucial and mobilization within the local Greek Brotherhood was intense.^[52] One prominent of its prominent members scholar Grigorios Malaxos, suggested fomenting a revolutionary movement in Greek territory, which would be supported by the Ecumenical Patriarch Metrophanes III.^[53] However, in 1572 it became apparent that the Venetians were about to sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans.^[37] As a result, the Greeks that had cooperated with the Venetians turned to the Kingdom of Naples, then part of the Spanish Empire, for support.^[54] The rebels in Mani approached the Spanish,^[37] while others, such as Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos, visited Don Juan, commander-in-chief of the Holly Alliance.^[55] Additionally, the metropolitan bishop of Monemvasia, Makarios Melissenos, and his brother, Theodore, initiated negotiations with both the Spanish and the Venetians.^[37] At March 1572 the metropolitan bishop of Grevena, Timotheos, proposed a plan to Pope Pius V that an expeditionary force from the western European countries should meet the rebels in the plain of Thessaloniki and from there they should attack Constantinople.^[56]

During April 1572 the rebellion was still active in parts of Mani and Monemvasia.^[37] The Ottomans sent a large army as well as naval forces which attacked the rebellious provinces and compelled Emmanuel Mormoris to retreat to the castle of Sopot, where he was later arrested.^[57] In October 1572 an attempt by Spain to land reinforcements in the coastal towns of Pylos and Modon failed.^[37] At following May the inhabitants of Aetoliko in Akarnania established contacts with representative of the Venetian units nearby. They asked for support by Greek stratioti units and they immediately received a unit consisting of 80 men from Zakynthos by orders of Sebastiano Venier, as well as weapons and ammunition.^[58]

The period c. 1570-1620 witnessed the first major wave of large scale uprisings in the Greek peninsula after the Fall of Constantinople (1453).^[70] Contemporary Ottoman records usual preserve descriptions of the events in various codices of the correspondent era.^[70] Both Greek and Ottoman contemporary literature agree that heavy taxation imposed on the Christian subjects of the regions was one of the main reasons that triggered the revolt.^[71]