Tiefu tribe

The rulers of Xia came from the Tiefu tribe, who descended from the Southern Xiongnu leader, Qubei. Qubei was a member of the ruling-Luandi clan as the brother of the chanyu, Qiangqu, although a later record alleged that he was the descendant of a Han dynasty prince-turned-Xiongnu noble, Liu Jinbo (劉進伯) instead. In 196, he assisted the warlord, Cao Cao in escorting Emperor Xian of Han to Xuchang, and in 216, Cao Cao appointed him to supervise the Five Divisions of the Southern Xiongnu in Shanxi.

In 309, Qubei's grandson, Liu Hu succeeded his father, Liu Gaoshengyuan, as chieftain and named his tribe “Tiefu”, a term referring to people with a Xiongnu father and a Xianbei mother. During the upheaval of the Five Barbarians in 310, Liu Hu rebelled against the Western Jin dynasty in Shanxi. The Tuoba-Xianbei tribe allied with Jin and quelled his rebellion, and were rewarded with their fiefdom of Dai. Liu Hu fled to Shuofang Commandery to the west, where his distant relative, the Han-Zhao emperor, Liu Cong, gave him the title of Duke of Loufan.

The Tiefu resided in Shuofang for many years. Liu Hu waged war with Dai but was repeatedly defeated and had to flee the Great Wall. His son, Liu Wuhuan succeeded him in 341 and immediately entered a marriage alliance with Dai. On the side, he also submitted to the Jie-led Later Zhao dynasty. His brother Liu Eloutou succeeded him in 356, but was ousted by Wuhuan's son, Liu Xiwuqi in 358. After Xiwuqi died in 359, his brother, Liu Weichen, killed his son and took power.

Weichen vacillated his allegiance between Dai and the Di-led Former Qin. In 376, after multiple defeats to Dai, he convinced Qin to launch a campaign against them, with him acting as a guide. Qin conquered Dai that same year, but when dividing up territory, Weichen was unhappy that Qin deferred more control over to his cousin, Liu Kuren of the Dugu tribe, prompting him to rebel. He was defeated and forced to cross the Yellow River west of the Ordos, where he resubmitted to Qin.

As Former Qin collapsed following the Battle of Fei River, Weichen re-occupied Shuofang in 386. Around the same time, the Tuoba had also revived their state, now known as the Northern Wei. The Tiefu initially posed a threat to Wei, but in 392, Weichen was killed and the tribe’s power base was destroyed after a Wei counteroffensive. A son of Weichen, Liu Bobo, went into exile and found protection under the Xianbei chieftain, Mei Yigan (沒弈干) at Gaoping (高平; in present-day Guyuan, Ningxia).

In 402, Mei Yigan and Liu Bobo fled to Qiang-led Later Qin under pressure from Wei. During his time in Qin, Bobo caught the attention of its ruler, Yao Xing. Impressed by his appearance and talents, Yao Xing made Bobo a general and assigned him to defend Shuofang, despite warnings from his officials regarding his violent behaviour. In 407, Bobo was angered by peace talks between Qin and Wei, leading him to rebel. After ceasing 8,000 tribute horses from the Rouran, he went to Gaoping and killed Mei Yigan, taking over his forces.

Reign of Helian Bobo

As the Xiongnu alleged that they descended from Yu the Great, Liu Bobo claimed descent from the Xia dynasty and founded his state of Great Xia, claiming the titles of Heavenly King and Grand Chanyu. The same year, he led his forces to subjugated the tribes in Shuofang. He briefly fought with the Southern Liang after they rejected a marriage alliance, dealing them a heavy defeat. Despite his grudge against Northern Wei, Bobo mainly concentrated his military efforts on the Later Qin. He refused to establish a capital in his early reign, instead choosing to lead a roving army and attacking Qin’s northern borders when least expected.

In 413, Bobo changed his family name from Liu to the more prestigious-sounding name of Helian. He also built his capital city of Tongwancheng at the southern edge of the Mu Us Desert. Construction of the city was reportedly brutal, with around 100,000 Han Chinese and tribal people being drafted to build the city. Remains of the city can still be seen today at Jingbian County, Shaanxi. In 414, Helian Bobo entered into an alliance with the Northern Yan in Liaoning, and in 415, with the Northern Liang in Gansu.

The war with Xia greatly drained the Qin economy and military, with many of their key generals being killed in battle. In 417, the Eastern Jin commander, Liu Yu, conquered Qin, but the situation back at the Jin capital forced him to return and leave behind his generals to defend the Guanzhong region. In 418, Bobo invaded the Guanzhong, and due to violent infighting among the Jin generals, he inflicted them a catastrophic defeat and captured the region.

In 419, Helian Bobo elevated himself to Emperor of Xia. Although the ancient capital, Chang’an, was under his control, he merely set up a Southern Administration there and remained with Tongwancheng as his capital out of concern that the Northern Wei would invade the Ordos in his absence. Throughout his reign, Bobo is described in records as an extremely cruel ruler who often killed his subjects on impulse. In 424, a civil war broke out among his sons, which ended in him appointing Helian Chang as his new Crown Prince.

Decline and fall

After Helian Bobo’s death in 425, the Northern Wei intensified their pressure on the Xia. While Helian Chang was away campaigning against the Western Qin, Wei carried out a surprise attack on Xia, capturing many cities in Guanzhong including Chang’an. In 427, as Xia attempted to recapture Chang’an, Wei launched a second attack and captured their capital at the Battle of Tongwancheng. Chang relocated to Shanggui, but after several more defeats, he was finally captured in battle in 428.

Helian Chang’s brother, Helian Ding, declared himself the new emperor at Pingliang. In 431, as Wei continued their encroachment, he made a last-ditch effort to expand westwards. He conquered the weakened Western Qin, but on his way to invade Northern Liang, he was ambushed and captured by the Tuyuhun. Helian Ding’s capture marked the end of the Xia, and in 432, he was turned over to Wei and executed. In 434, Helian Chang tried to escape west from Pingcheng but was intercepted and killed.