Human settlement

Few attempts have been made to establish the earliest human settlement in Northeast India, and it is generally thought to have been uninhabited by archaic humans prior to late Pleistocene due to unfavorable geographical conditions.^[11] This is however disputed and Northeast Corridors are proposed by some scholars to have played a defining role in early hominid migrations and peopling of India.^[12]

Paleolithic

Most scholars don't discuss a paleolithic age in Manipur (and Northeast).^[13] However, Manjil Hazarika, in his 2017 survey of prehistory of Northeast India, rejects that there exists any plausible ground to deny presence of Paleolithic culture in Manipur.^[14]

A few paleolithic sites (Khangkhui, Napachik, Machi, Somgu and Singtom) have been located in Manipur.^[15] Though, in absence of good chrono-stratigraphic context of the finds and their cohabitation with remains of other ages, accuracy of such identifications remains open to critiques.^[13] The existence of Hoabinhian-like complexes remains disputed, as well.^[16]

Neolithic

Multiple neolithic sites have been identified in Manipur; they include Nongpok Keithelmanbi, Napachik, Laimenai, Naran Siena, and Phunan.^[17] Considered to be part of a larger Southeast Asian complex, the identifications are primarily accorded on the basis of stone tools and pottery (esp. cord-impressed ware); characteristic cultural identifiers of the Neolithic (agriculture, animal rearing etc.) are yet to be located and their development chronology is subject of active research.^[18] Hazarika notes the Neolithic culture in Northeast to have begun some four thousand years after that in the Gangetic Plains.^[19]

Meiteilon, lingua-franca of Meiteis belongs to the TB phylum.^[20] Hazarika notes the Manipuri sites to have an abundance of three-legged pottery and cord-impressed ware, very similar to the ones found in Southern China and Thailand, and hypothesizes that Manipur might have been the melting pot of Neolithic impulses from adjoining regions.^[21] Roger Blench, in agreement with George van Driem's reconstructions of archeo-linguistic history of Southeast Asia, proposes that Northeast India accommodated a diverse group of foragers since neolithic age, who learned agriculture and animal rearing c. 4000 B.C before migrating eastwards and establishing the Tibeto-Burman (TB) phylum.^[22]

Chalcolithic and beyond

Hazarika notes the broader region to not show evidence of any significant cultural transformation, upon the dawning of Copper Age (and then, Iron Age).^[23] The state has an abundance of megaliths of various shapes, serving distinct purposes.^[24] Sometime before the Christian era, the valley got inhabited by distinct yeks (clans), who had probably migrated from Southern China during the late Iron Age. The hill-tribes are probably of indigenous origins.^[25]

Iron age

There has been a marked absence of historical evidence especially written records governing the span between Iron Age and the first millennium in North East India.^[23] Chronicles of other nations mention that trade networks between India proper and South China were likely operating via Manipur; pilgrims are reported to have entered India from China via these territories.^[26] The geopolitical history of the region along with the ethno-linguistic background of the inhabitants are largely unknown.^[27][28][29]

Sources

The primary source concerning ancient and medieval Manipur has been restricted to the Cheitharol Kumbaba (Ch. K.) – the court history of the kings of Manipur – which dates the first king to 33 CE.^[27][30] However, the historical record herein up to the reign of King Kyampa (1467–1508 CE) are noted to have been redrafted during the reign of Ching-Thang Khomba (Bhagyachandra) in the mid- to late-18th century because those leaves were "lost". This part of the chronicle remains particularly unreliable. The kings of that period are assigned extraordinary spans of length, and there is a scarcity of objective information.^[31] Saroj Nalili Parratt hypothesizes that many of these monarchs were probably borrowed from the cultural pantheon and interspersed with religious myths to fit into their collective memory of intra-clan conquests and legitimize the current rule by the Meitei. Parratt as well as Gangmumei Kamei suspect that the initiation date of 33 CE was arrived upon by the scribes via astrological calculations.^[32]

Ch. K. is also a Meitei chronicle – Meitei being one of the migrant clans, originally named Ningthouja, who (at some unknown point of time) assimilated others into a confederacy, and gained rulership of the monarchy – with the early sections being essentially themed on the expansion of the Meitei across the valley of Manipur and other exploits.^[33][34]

Some local authors have used Puyas, archaic Manipuri manuscripts in their reconstruction of Manipuri History. This tendency has been criticized by Parratt and others; none of these texts are yet dated by professional historians or subject to serious textual-critical scrutiny, and hence are not suitable for purposes other than commenting on Meitei traditions.^{[35][36][lower-alpha 1]} Scholars have also found Puyas to have been (potentially) forged by Meitei Nationalists in support of their reinvention of history and tradition.^[38][39][40]

Mythology and early kings

Pakhangpa, a primordial dragon god in Meitei mythology, is credited in Ch. K. for having established the Meitei rule by subjugating the "Poireitons". The first seven kings mentioned over Ch. K. – Pakhangpa, Tompok, Taothingmang, Khui Ningngongpa, Pengsipa, Kaokhongpa and Naokhampa – allegedly ruled until 411 CE. Barring Pakhangpa and Taothingmang, the chronicle only records the regnal span of each king. Parratt notes that there's not even any evidence of these seven rulers belonging to the same dynasty, and in all probabilities they were reconstructed from oral legends of varying origins. The chronicle itself mentions that nothing much is known about these "divine"-like kings.

Naokhampa was succeeded by Naophangpa, about whom nothing significant is mentioned in the chronicle. He was succeeded by his son Sameirang, who fought a successful battle over Aangom, a fellow clan. The next ruler was Konthoupa and his reign saw some devastating warfare with "Senloi Langmai". After a monarch-less span of five years, Naothingkhong became the next king. During his reign the chieftain of Pong Kingdom is noted to have engaged in an annexation spree before returning via Manipur. Khongtekcha was the next king; a successful battle over the Moirang clan is noted, and he ruled for ten years. After a gap of eleven years, the next king was Keirencha, who ruled for fifteen years. He was succeeded by Yarepa, who reigned for twenty two years. Nothing else is noted about these two kings. The next four kings were Aayangpa, Ningthoucheng, Chenglei Yipan Lanthapa and Yirengpa, who ruled for a combined total of 253 years. All of them are noted to have emerged victorious in varied kinds of warfare over fellow clans – Aayangpa subdued the Nongyai Khumans, Ningthoucheng raided Houkei, Lanthapa captured a group of Luwangs, and Yirengpa defeated the Moirangs as well as Khumans.^[41]

Loiyumpa was the next king, and Ch. K. records his reign in considerable detail. He is credited with the initiation of the first 'constitution'. He was succeeded by Loitongpa, who emerged successful in some undescribed battles on the eastern fronts, probably waged over autochthonous ethnic groups. After a rule of twenty eight years, he was succeeded by Aatom Yoirenpa, who ruled for thirteen years. Yoirenpa was soon chased out by his brother and had to take refuge with the Khumans. Under Yiwanthapa, who reigned for thirty two years, a successful war was waged on the Khumans and their chief queen was murdered. The next ruler was Thawanthapa. In a thirty six year long rule, he subdued multiple internal and external threats. Despite allying with the Khumans once, in a raid against the villagers of Hairem, he would go on to defeat the Khumans. The next king was Chingthang Lanthapa, who defeated the Khumans as well as Kamus, in his eleven year long rule. Thingpai Senhongpa succeeded him; nothing significant is noted except that he ruled for 5 years.Puranthapa, the next king, re-defeated the Khumans at Pairou, consolidated the territories of Koupa Koutai, and conquered the Chakpas.^[42]

Khumompa became king in 1263 and went on to ally with the Khumans to successfully ward off an invasion by the rulers of Kabaw Valley. A battle over the mountain-folks of Hao was also waged and their king Maimumpa was captured. Moirampa succeeded him, and again defeated the Khumans as well as Moirangs. Other battles against the Kekes and people of Makihao are noted; Korirong was captured. Thangpi Lanthapa ruled for twenty two years and trounced the Moirangs as well as the Loipi Haos; Tengkongbi and Marem Namngapa were captured. Kongyapa ascended in 1324 went on to succeed him. He was succeeded by Tenheipa, who reigned for twenty years and engaged in a multitude of warfare. Nothing is mentioned about the next ruler Tonapa, except that he reigned for five years. Then, Tapungpa ascended to the throne and waged successful warfare against the Loipi Marems, before being assassinated by Khamlangpa, the king of Chingsong, after thirty five years of rule. Again, there is a scarcity of information about the next king Lairenpa; he reigned for five years and there were no king for five, after. Punsipa's reign went until 1432, and was witness to numerous clashes including one with Moirangs.^[43]

One of the early states of the region was the Kangleipak State, its first constitution, the Loiyumba Sinyen, was made during the reign of King Loiyumba in the late 11th century.^[5][44][45]

Early Modern

The early modern period is often called "medieval" by Meitei historians.^[46]

Ningthoukhompa ruled from 1432 to 1467. He routed out the Moirangs, and repulsed a rebellion by the Tankhnus of the mountains.^[47]

During the reign of Meidingu Senbi Kiyamba (1467–1507) the ancient Meitei faith, Sanamahism, began to collapse. It was during his reign that the Brahmin people migrated to the kingdom and the volume of Vaishnavists proceeded with the worship of the Pheiya (sacred stone from Pong kingdom) as the Hindu God Vishnu.^[48] This was the origin of Meitei Vaishnavism.

Kuranganayani was a Manipuri princess who became queen of Ahom in 1768

During the reign of emperor Gharib Niwaz (born Pumbeitha, 1709–1748), the name of the kingdom was changed from Kangleipak to Manipura. It was during his regime the religion of the entire Meitei ethnicity was forcibly converted from Sanamahism into Hinduism.^[48][49][50] In 1729, the legendary burning of the sacred scriptures of Sanamahism took place^[51] during the reign of Gharib Niwaz. This event is annually commemorated during the Puya Meithaba.

Modern

The history of modern Manipur covers the history of Manipur from the Seven Years Devastation to the Burmese Empire and to the present day.