The history of horse domestication has been subject to much debate, with various competing hypotheses over time about how domestication of the horse occurred. The main point of contention was whether the domestication of the horse occurred once in a single domestication event, or that the horse was domesticated independently multiple times. The debate was resolved at the beginning of the 21st century using DNA evidence that favored a mixed model in which domestication of the stallion most likely occurred only once, while wild mares of various regions were included in local domesticated herds.^[1][2]

In the 20th century, various ideas were postulated. One set hypothesized multiple ancestral body types of the single species Equus ferus or the original wild horse, each adapted to a given environment.^[3] Another hypothesis held that prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.^[4] Yet another proposed that the theoretical prototypes were each separate species or subspecies.^[3][4] These theories were all based on body types and conformation, prior to the availability of DNA for research, and have since been superseded by modern studies.^[5][2]

In the past, several theories were proposed about the origin of the domesticated horse and how the variety in horse breeds developed. They generally can be subdivided in two categories, single origin versus multiple origins.

Modern genetic evidence now points at a single domestication event for a limited number of stallions, combined with repeated restocking of wild mares into domesticated herds.^[12] This suggests that different body types might be a combination of both selective breeding and semi-feral landrace traits.

A study in 2012 that performed genomic sampling on 300 work horses from local areas as well as a review of previous studies of archaeology, mitochondrial DNA, and Y-DNA suggested that horses were originally domesticated in the western part of the Eurasian steppe.^[13] Both domesticated stallions and mares spread out from this area, and then some additional wild mares were added from local herds; wild mares were easier to handle than wild stallions. Most other parts of the world were ruled out as sites for horse domestication, either due to climate unsuitable for an indigenous wild horse population or no evidence of domestication. It remains possible that a second, independent, domestication site might exist in the Iberian Peninsula, but the study could neither confirm nor disprove that hypothesis.^[14]

The Przewalski's horse (now Equus ferus przewalskii) is currently believed to be unrelated to the modern domestic horse, though studies using DNA have had varied results. Recent mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests that the Przewalski and the modern domestic horse diverged some 160,000 years ago.^[15] Studies using DNA have been inconclusive. A 2009 molecular study using ancient DNA (that is DNA recovered from archaeological finds like bones and teeth) places the Przewalski's horse in the middle of the domesticated horses.^[16] These difficulties exist in part due to crossing domestic horses into the Przewalski's horse as well as the limited genetic variation present in the founder population of the modern Przewalski's Horse.

Chariot burials about 2500 BCE present the most direct hard evidence of horses used as working animals. Indirect evidence suggests that horses were ridden long before they were driven, approximately 3500 BCE.^[17] One theory proposed was that the modern horse is descended from the Botai culture (in present-day Kazakhstan) where horses were milked and possibly ridden more than 5,000 years ago. A study of ancient and modern horse DNA concluded that modern horses do share a small amount of DNA with Botai horses but modern horses are not descendants of Botai horses. Przewalski's horse and Botai horses were both descendants of another domesticated horse they called the Borly4.^[18]

However, modern domesticated breeds do not descend from the earliest domestic horse lineage at Botai. In 2021, it was reported that, according to a comprehensive genetic analysis, today's domestic horses descend from the lower Volga-Don region, Russia. 273 ancient horse genomes indicate that these populations replaced almost all local populations as they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia from about 4200 years ago. It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly selected for by horse riding, and that equestrian material culture – including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots (but not Indo-European languages) spread alongside. In the case of Asia Indo-Iranian languages, chariots and horses spread together, "following the early second millennium BC Sintashta culture".^[19][20]

• Evolution of the horse