Holy Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire[16] was a political entity[17] in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.[18]

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Holy Roman Empire Sacrum Imperium Romanum (Latin) Heiliges Römisches Reich (German)
800/962[lower-alpha 1]–1806
Imperial Banner (c. 1430–1806) Coat of arms (15th century design)
Quaternion Eagle (1510)
The Holy Roman Empire at its greatest territorial extent (c. 1200-c. 1250)
Capital	Rome (de jure) Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor Aachen (800–1562) 800–888 (as capital) 800–1562 (Coronation of King of Germany) Palermo (1194–1254) (from inheritance by Henry VI of the hereditary title of the Kingdom of Sicily to the fall of the Hohenstaufen)[1][2][3] Innsbruck (1508–1519) Seat of the Hofkammer and the Court Chancery[4][5] Vienna (ca. 1550s–1583, 1612–1806) Seat of the Habsburgs[6][7][8][9] (seat of the Aulic Council since 1497, Imperial Residence since 1556)[10] Frankfurt (1562–1806) Election and coronation Prague (1583–1612) [11][12] Regensburg (1594–1806) Imperial Diet from 1594, perpetual from 1663[lower-alpha 2] Wetzlar (1689–1806) Imperial Chamber Court
Common languages	German, Medieval Latin (administrative/liturgical/ceremonial) Various[lower-alpha 3]
Religion	Official religions: Chalcedonian Christianity (800/962–11th century) Catholicism (11th century–1806) Lutheranism (1555–1806) Calvinism (1648–1806) see details
Government	Confederal feudal elective monarchy Mixed monarchy (since Imperial Reform)[14]
Emperor
• 800–814	Charlemagne[lower-alpha 1] (first)
• 1792–1806	Francis II (last)
Legislature	Imperial Diet
Historical era	Middle Ages to early modern period
• Frankish Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of the Romans[lower-alpha 1]	25 December 800
• East Frankish Otto I is crowned Emperor of the Romans	2 February 962
• Conrad II assumes crown of the Kingdom of Burgundy	2 February 1033
• Peace of Augsburg	25 September 1555
• Peace of Westphalia	24 October 1648
• Cabinet wars	1648–1789
• Battle of Austerlitz	2 December 1805
• Abdication of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor	6 August 1806
Area
1050[lower-alpha 4]	1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1700[15]	25,000,000
• 1800[15]	29,000,000
Currency	Multiple: thaler, guilder, groschen, Reichsthaler
Preceded by Succeeded by East Francia Kingdom of Italy Carolingian Dynasty Confederation of the Rhine Austrian Empire Kingdom of Prussia Papal States Old Swiss Confederacy Kingdom of Sardinia Duchy of Savoy Dutch Republic

From the accession of Otto I in 962 until the twelfth century, the Empire was the most powerful monarchy in Europe.[19] The functioning of government depended on the harmonious cooperation between monarch and vassals,[20] but this harmony was disturbed during the Salian period.[21] The empire reached the apex of territorial expansion and power under the House of Hohenstaufen in the mid-thirteenth century, but overextending led to partial collapse.[22][23]

On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Roman emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the earlier ancient Western Roman Empire in 476.[24] In theory and diplomacy, the emperors were considered primus inter pares, regarded as first among equals among other Catholic monarchs across Europe.[25] The title continued in the Carolingian family until 888 and from 896 to 899, after which it was contested by the rulers of Italy in a series of civil wars until the death of the last Italian claimant, Berengar I, in 924. The title was revived again in 962 when Otto I, King of Germany, was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne[26] and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries.[27][28][lower-alpha 5] Some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire,[29][30] while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning.[31][32] Henry the Fowler, the founder of the medieval German state (ruled 919–936),[33] has sometimes been considered the founder of the Empire as well.[34] The modern view favours Otto as the true founder.[35] Scholars generally concur in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, describing a gradual assumption of the imperial title and role.[36][29]

The exact term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century,[37] but the Emperor's legitimacy always rested on the concept of translatio imperii, that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome.[36] The imperial office was traditionally elective through the mostly German prince-electors.

During the final phase of the reign of Emperor Frederick III (ruled 1452–1493), Imperial Reform began. The reform would largely be materialized during Maximilian I's rule (from 1486 as King of the Romans, from 1493 as sole ruler, and from 1508 as Holy Roman Emperor, until his death in 1519). The Empire transformed into the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. It was during this time that the Empire gained most of its institutions, which endured until its final demise in the nineteenth century.[38][39]

According to Thomas Brady Jr., the Empire, after the Imperial Reform, was a political body of remarkable longevity and stability, and "resembled in some respects the monarchical polities of Europe's western tier, and in others the loosely integrated, elective polities of East Central Europe." The new corporate German Nation, instead of simply obeying the emperor, negotiated with him.[40][41] On 6 August 1806, Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire following the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Emperor of the French Napoleon I the month before.