Delhi Sultanate

During the Delhi Sultanate, the Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.^[6] The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.^[7]

Mughal Empire

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, covering modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.^[8] However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu king Hemu, who had won 22 battles against Afghan rebels and forces of Akbar, from Punjab to Bengal and had established a secular Muslim rule in North India from Delhi until 1556. Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.

The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707. The Mughals suffered a severe blow due to invasions from Marathas and Afghans due to which the Mughal dynasty were reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated and taken over by the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence. As the British took over the remnants of the Mughal Empire, the dynasty was ended.

The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha Empire - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this.^{[citation needed]} Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.^{[citation needed]}

Cultural exchanges

Joint Declaration of 1973

An Indo-Mongolian joint declaration was signed in February 1973 during the Indian visit of the Mongolian Prime Minister Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal.^[5]

Treaty of Friendly Relations and Cooperation (1994)

A treaty of friendly relations and cooperation was signed in February 1994 during the visit of the then Mongolian president Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, to India.^[5]

As per the provisions of the treaty, India and Mongolia resolved to develop cooperation in trade and economy, science, health, agriculture, culture, education, communication and tourism. They also resolved to work closely to ensure security and curbing international crimes and terrorism.^[5]

2001-present

In January 2001, the Mongolian president Natsagiin Bagabandi visited India.^[11] During this visit, a Joint Declaration was issued and a series of six major agreements were signed in order to promote cooperation in the fields of Information Technology, Investment Promotion and Protection and mutual legal assistance in civil, criminal and commercial matters.^[11] Mongolia conveyed its support to India's bid to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and also indicated its support for India's peace efforts with Pakistan.^[11]

The Mongolian prime Minister Nambaryn Enkhbayar visited India in January 2004.^[11] During this visit, three agreements were signed in order to promote mutual cooperation in the fields of Animal Health and Dairy, Space Science and biotechnology.^[11]

India offered a soft loan of US$25 million to improve its infrastructure.^{[12][failed verification – see discussion]} Proposals for an Atal Bihari Vajpayee Centre for Excellence in Information Technology and Communication Technology in the Mongolian capital Ulaan Baatar were formalized during this visit.^[12] The Foundation of IT Center was laid by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on May 17, 2015.^[13] A Mongolian-run Buddhist monastery was established in the historic city of Bodh Gaya and its foundation stone was laid by Enkhbayar.^[12]

Indo-Mongolian relations have been growing ever since it was resolved to elevate ties to a "new level of partnership" during the India visit of Mongolian President Enkhbayar.^[14] India provides technical and economic cooperation to Mongolia in the fields of higher education, agriculture, information and communication technology and human resource development.^[14] Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi visited Mongolia on 16 May 2015, where he also addressed the Parliament.^[15] He also handed over Bhabhatron equipment to the National Cancer Centre in Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar.^[16] Furthermore, during Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to in May 2015, a $1 Billion line of credit was extended to Mongolia, for infrastructure development, amongst many other fields.^[17]

In early 2021, India stepped up on the COVID-19 vaccine distribution to several countries, including Mongolia, to mitigate some of the delays by the WHO.^[18] India donated 13 boxes (150k doses) of the COVID-19 vaccine to Mongolia, making it one of the first 25 countries to receive the vaccine from India. During the donation ceremony, Ambassador of India to Mongolia M P Singh noted the importance of Mongolia for India's Act East policy as a strategic partner and ‘spiritual neighbour.’^[18]

Recent

Recently^[when?], India and Mongolia have reviewed bilateral cooperation in hydrocarbons and steel sectors.^{[citation needed]}

• The Project came in the backdrop of Mongolia, which has large uranium deposits signing an agreement for civil nuclear cooperation with India in 2009 and China unfolding its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).^{[citation needed]}
• India is opposed to the Belt and Road Initiative, which seeks to invest about US$8 trillion in infrastructure projects across Asia, Europe and Africa, as it says the initiative lures countries into debt traps and does not respect sovereignty.^{[citation needed]}
• India is building an oil refinery in Mongolia which will serve 70% of country's population. The worth of the project is $1.2 billion.^[19]