Existence, condition or location

This verb expresses the absolute existence of something, its condition, or its location. When accompanied by the adverb ann "there", it means "exist" or "there is/are". Otherwise, the verb is complemented by an adjective, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.

Definitions

A noun phrase alone cannot form the predicate of the existential verb. Instead, the noun complement is preceded by a form meaning "in my, in your, in his", etc.

Topicalization

Topicalization in Irish is formed by clefting: by fronting the topicalized element as the predicate of the copula, while the rest of the sentence becomes a relative clause. Compare Dúirt mise é "I said it" with Is mise a dúirt é "I said it."

Other uses for the copula

There are other set idiomatic phrases using the copula, as seen in the following examples. Here the predicate consists mostly of either a prepositional phrase or an adjective.

• (38a) Is maith liom "I like" (lit. "is good with me")
• (38b) Ba mhaith liom "I would like" (lit. "would be good with me")
• (38c) Is fearr liom "I prefer" (lit. "is better with me")
• (38d) Is féidir liom "I can" (lit. "is possible with me")
• (38e) Ba cheart "one should" (lit. "would be right")
• (38f) Níor cheart "one shouldn't" (lit. "would not be right")
• (38g) Is fuath liom "I hate" (lit. "is hatred with me")
• (38h) Is cuma liom "I don't care" (lit. "is indifferent with me")
• (38i) Is mian liom "I wish/would like" (lit. "is desire with me")
• (38j) Is cuimhin liom "I remember" (lit. "is memory with me")

There are also the following constructions:

Answering questions with copula

Since the copula cannot stand alone, the answer must contain either a part of the predicate or a pronoun, both of which follow the copula.

• (42) An é Seán an múinteoir? "Is Seán the teacher?"
  • (42.1) Is é. "Yes, he is."
  • (42.2) Ní hé. "No, he isn't."
• (43) An múinteoir é Seán? "Is Seán a teacher?"
  • (43.1) Is ea. "Yes, he is."
  • (43.2) Ní hea. "No, he isn't."

Omission of is

In all dialects, the copula is may be omitted if the predicate is a noun. (Ba cannot be deleted.) If is is omitted, the following é, í, iad preceding the noun is omitted as well.

• (44a) (Is) mise an múinteoir. "I am the teacher."
• (44b) (Is é) Seán an múinteoir. "Seán is the teacher."
• (44c) (Is) dalta mé. "I am a student."

Syntactic complementation

The subordinate clause is a part of the main clause in a purely syntactic complementation. In Irish it is introduced by go "that" in the positive and nach "that... not" in the negative.

Other examples of complex sentences using complementizers:

• (47a) Bhí faitíos roimhe mar go raibh sé taghdach. "People were afraid of him because he was quick-tempered."
• (47b) Ní chreidim é cé go bhfeicim é. "I don't believe it although I see it."
• (47c) Scríobh sí síos é ar nós nach ndéanfadh sí dearmad air. "She wrote it down so that she wouldn't forget it."
• (47d) Fan nó go dtiocfaidh sé. "Wait until he comes."

Conditional complementation

A conditional clause gives the condition under which something will happen. In Irish there are two kinds of conditional clauses, depending on the plausibility of the condition. The particle má introduces a conditional clause that is plausible, also called a realis condition. Má causes lenition and takes the independent form of irregular verbs. Its negated form is mura and causes eclipsis. Preceding the preterite it is murar and causes lenition.

If the condition of the clause is hypothetical, also called an irrealis condition or counterfactual conditional, the word dá is used, which causes eclipsis and takes the dependent form of irregular verbs. The negated equivalent is either mura or murach go, meaning roughly "if it were not the case that...". The verb in both clauses is in the conditional.

• (48a) Má chreideann sé an scéal sin, tá sé saonta go maith. "If he believes that story, he is pretty gullible." (realis)
• (48b) Murar chaill sé é, ghoid sé é. "If he didn't lose it, then he stole it." (realis)
• (48c) Dá bhfágfainn agat é ní dhéanfá é. "If I left it to you, you wouldn't do it." (irrealis)

Other examples of conditionals are:

• (49a) Éireoidh leis an bhfiontar i gcleithiúnas go mbeidh cách páirteach ann. "The venture will succeed provided that all take part in it."
• (49b) Tig leat é a bhriseadh ar chuntar go n-íocfaidh tú as. "You may break it provided that you pay for it."

Direct relative

There are two kinds of relative clauses in Irish: direct and indirect. Direct relative clauses begin with the leniting relativizer a and the independent form of an irregular verb is used. The direct relative is used when the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause.

• (50a) D'imigh na daoine a bhí míshásta thar sáile. "The people who were unhappy went overseas."
• (50b) Sin í an obair a rinne mé. "That's the work that I did."

The direct relative is also used in topicalizations, e.g.:

• (51) Is é Jimmy a chuaigh go Méiriceá. "It's Jimmy who went to America."

The direct relative is also used after the word uair "time":

• (52) an chéad uair a bhí mé ann "the first time that I was there"

Indirect relative

Indirect relative clauses begin with the eclipsing relativizer a (in the preterite with leniting ar); the dependent form of an irregular verb is used. The indirect relative is used to signify a genitive or the object of a preposition. In these cases, there is a resumptive pronoun in the relative clause.

• (53a) an fear a raibh a dheirfiúr san ospidéal "the man whose sister was in the hospital" (lit. "the man that his sister was in the hospital")
• (53b) an fear ar thug a iníon céad punt dó "the man whose daughter gave him a hundred pounds" or "the man to whom his daughter gave a hundred pounds" (lit. "the man that his daughter gave him a hundred pounds")
• (53c) an seomra ar chodail mé ann "the room that I slept in" (lit. "the room that I slept in it")

The negative form of a relative clause, direct or indirect, is formed with the eclipsing relativizer nach, or, before the preterite, with the leniting relativizer nár.

• (54a) Sin rud nach dtuigim. "That's something I don't understand." (direct)
• (54b) bean nach bhfuil a mac ag obair "a woman whose son isn't working" (indirect; lit. "a woman that her son isn't working")

Sometimes a direct relative clause can be ambiguous in meaning, leaving unclear if the relative is accusative or nominative:

• (55) an sagart a phóg an bhean "the priest who kissed the woman" or "the priest whom the woman kissed"

If the accusative reading is intended, one could use an indirect relative with a resumptive pronoun:

• (56) an sagart ar phóg an bhean é "the priest whom the woman kissed" (lit. "the priest that the woman kissed him")

Direct relative wh-questions

Questions with "who, what, how many, which, when" are constructed as direct relative clauses.

• (57a) Cathain/Cá huair a tharla sé? "When did it happen?"
• (57b) Cé a rinne é? "Who did it?"
• (57c) Céard a fuair tú? "What did you get?"
• (57d) Cé mhéad míle a shiúil tú? "How many miles did you walk?"
• (57e) Cé acu is daoire, feoil nó iasc? "Which is more expensive, meat or fish?"

Indirect relative wh-questions

Questions with prepositions (i.e. "on what?, with whom?") and questions with "why?" and "where?" are constructed as indirect relative clauses.

• (58a) Cé aige a bhfuil an t-airgead? "Who has the money?" (lit. "who at him is the money")
• (58b) Cá leis ar thóg tú an gluaisteán? "What did you lift the car with?" (lit. "what with it did you lift the car")
• (58c) Cad chuige ar bhuail tú é? "Why did you hit him?"
• (58d) Cén áit a bhfaca tú an bhean? "Where did you see the woman?"

Clauses introduced by "how"

There are two words for "how" in Irish: the word conas takes the direct relative clause, the phrase cén chaoi takes the indirect.

• (59a) Conas a tharla sé? "How did it happen?"
• (59b) Cén chaoi a mbaineann sin leat? "How does that concern you?/What business is that of yours?"