Kinshasa

Kinshasa

Kinshasa

Capital and most populous city of DR Congo

Kinshasa (/kɪnˈʃɑːsə/; French: [kinʃasa]; Lingala: Kinsásá), formerly named Léopoldville from 1881–1966 (Dutch: Leopoldstad), is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kinshasa is one of the world's fastest-growing megacities, with an estimated population of 17.8 million in 2024.[6] It is the most densely populated city in the DRC, the second-most populous city and third-largest metropolitan area in Africa, and the world's twenty-second most populous city and fourth-most populous capital city. It is the leading economic, political, and cultural center of the DRC,[7][8][9][10] housing several industries including manufacturing,[11] telecommunications,[12][13] banking, and entertainment.[14][15] The city also hosts some of DRC's significant institutional buildings, such as the People's Palace, Palace of the Nation, Court of Cassation, Constitutional Court, African Union City, Marble Palace, Martyrs Stadium, Government House, Kinshasa Financial Center, and other national departments and agencies.[16][17][18][19]

Quick Facts Kinsásá (Lingala), Country ...

The Kinshasa site has been inhabited by Teke and Humbu people for centuries and was known as Nshasa before transforming into a commercial hub during the 19th and 20th centuries.[20][21] The city was named Léopoldville by Henry Morton Stanley in honor of Leopold II of Belgium.[20][22][23] The name was changed to Kinshasa in 1966 during Mobutu Sese Seko's Zairianisation campaign as a tribute to Nshasa village.[20] Covering 9,965 square kilometers, Kinshasa stretches along the southern shores of the Pool Malebo on the Congo River. It forms an expansive crescent across flat, low-lying terrain at an average altitude of about 300 meters.[20] Kinshasa borders the Mai-Ndombe Province, Kwilu Province, and Kwango Province to the east; the Congo River delineates its western and northern perimeters, constituting a natural border with the Republic of the Congo; to the south lies the Kongo Central Province. Across the river sits Brazzaville, the smaller capital of the neighboring Republic of the Congo, forming the world's closest pair of capital cities despite being separated by a four-kilometer-wide unbridged span of the Congo River.[24][25][20][26]

Kinshasa also functions as one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is administratively divided into 24 communes, which are further subdivided into 365 neighborhoods.[27] With an expansive administrative region, over 90 percent of the province's land remains rural, while urban growth predominantly occurs on its western side.[28] Kinshasa is the largest nominally Francophone urban area globally, with French being the language of government, education, media, public services and high-end commerce, while Lingala is used as a lingua franca in the street. The city's inhabitants are popularly known as Kinois, with the term "Kinshasans" used in English terminology.[7][29][30][31]

The National Museum of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is DRC's most prominent and central museum. The College of Advanced Studies in Strategy and Defense is the highest military institution in DRC and Central Africa. The National Pedagogical University is DRC's first pedagogical university and one of Africa's top pedagogical universities. N'Djili International Airport is the largest airport in the nation.[32] In 2015, Kinshasa was designated as a City of Music by UNESCO and has been a member of the Creative Cities Network since then.[33][34] Nsele Valley Park is the largest urban park in Kinshasa, housing a range of fauna and flora. According to the 2016 annual ranking, Kinshasa is Africa's most expensive city for expatriate employees, ahead of close to 200 global locations.[35][36][37]

Toponymy

There are several theories about the origin of the name Kinshasa. Paul Raymaekers, an anthropologist and ethnologist, suggests that the name derives from the combination of the Kikongo and Kihumbu languages.[20] The prefix "Ki(n)" signifies a hill or inhabited area and "Nsasa" or "Nshasa" refers to a bag of salt. According to Raymackers, Kinshasa was a significant trading site where people from the Lower Congo (now Kongo Central Province) and South Atlantic Ocean exchanged salt for goods such as iron, slaves and ivory brought by those from the Upper Congo (now Tshopo Province).[20] However Hendrik van Moorsel, an anthropologist, historian and researcher, proposes that Bateke fishermen traded fish for cassava with locals along the riverbank, and the place of this exchange was called "Ulio".[20][21] In Teke, "exchange" is "Utsaya", and "place of exchange" is "Intsaya". Thus, the name evolved from Ulio to Intsaya, and later, under the influence of Kikongo, transformed into Kintsaya, eventually becoming Kinshasa.[20] Kinshasa, also known as N'shasa, is regarded as the primary "place of exchange" on the southern bank of the Pool Malebo, where bartering occurred even before the commercial boom of Kintambo.[20]

The name Nshasa is believed to originate from the Teke verb "tsaya" (tsaa), meaning "to exchange", and the noun "intsaya" (insaa), referring to any market or place of exchange. It was at this location that Teke brokers traded ivory and slaves from the Banunu slave traders, often mistaken for the Yanzi, for European trade items brought by the Zombo and Kongo people.[20] Despite the various theories, the historical name of Kinshasa is known to have been Nshasa, as documented by Henry Morton Stanley during his crossing of Africa from Zanzibar to Boma in 1874–1877 when he mentioned visiting "the king of Nshasa" on 14 March 1877.[20][23][22]

History

Main articles: History of Kinshasa, Timeline of Kinshasa, and Kinshasa (commune) § History
View of Léopoldville station and port (1884)
Kinshassa village (1912)

Prior to the establishment of Kinshasa, the area was for a time part of the Anziku Kingdom. By about 1698, it had become an essentially independent domain known as Nkonkobela.[38]

The city was established as a trading post by Henry Morton Stanley in 1881.[39] It was named Léopoldville in honor of Stanley's employer King Leopold II of the Belgians. He would then proceed to take control of most of the Congo Basin as the Congo Free State, not as a colony but as his private property. The post flourished as the first navigable port on the Congo River above Livingstone Falls, a series of rapids over 300 kilometres (190 miles) below Leopoldville. At first, all goods arriving by sea or being sent by sea had to be carried by porters between Léopoldville and Matadi, the port below the rapids and 150 km (93 mi) from the coast. The completion of the Matadi-Kinshasa portage railway, in 1898, provided an alternative route around the rapids and sparked the rapid development of Léopoldville. In 1914, a pipeline was installed so that crude oil could be transported from Matadi to the upriver steamers in Leopoldville.[40] By 1923, the city was elevated to capital of the Belgian Congo, replacing the town of Boma in the Congo estuary, pursuant to the Royal Decree of 1 July 1923, countersigned by the Minister of the Colonies, Louis Franc.[20][40] This transition, finalized in 1929, led to the development of a new administrative quartier located between Kinshasa, then emerging as a major commercial center, and Léopoldville-West, a preexisting settlement. The selected site was named Kalina (now Gombe) and developed as the colonial administrative center.[41] Before this, Léopoldville was designated an "urban district", encompassing exclusively the communes of Kintambo and the current Gombe, which burgeoned around Ngaliema Bay.[20][42][43] Then the communes of Kinshasa, Barumbu, and Lingwala emerged. In the 1930s, these communes predominantly housed employees of Chanic, Filtisaf, and Utex Africa.[43]

In 1941, legislative ordinance n°293/AIMO of 25 June 1941, conferred Kinshasa the status of a city and established an Urban Committee (Comité Urbain), with an allocated area of 5,000 hectares and a population of 53,000.[44][43] Concurrently, it became the colony's capital, the Congo-Kasaï Province's capital, and the Moyen Congo district. The city was demarcated into two zones: the urban zone, comprising Léo II, Léo-Ouest, Kalina, Léo-I, or Léo-Est, and Ndolo; and the indigenous zone to the south. The urban populace swelled in 1945 with the cessation of forced labor, facilitating the influx of native Africans from rural regions. Léopoldville then became predominantly inhabited by the Bakongo ethnic group.[43]

In the 1950s, planned urban centers such as Lemba, Matete, and a segment of Ndjili were established to accommodate workers from the Limete industrial zone.[43] Lovanium University, the colony's inaugural university, was founded in 1954.[43] By 1957, Léopoldville comprised eleven communes and six adjunct regions: Kalamu, Dendale (present-day Kasa-Vubu commune), Saint Jean (now Lingwala), Ngiri-Ngiri, Kintambo, Limete, Bandalungwa, Léopoldville (current Gombe), Barumbu, Kinshasa, and Ngaliema; along with the adjunct regions of Lemba, Binza, Makala, Kimwenza, Kimbanseke, and Kingasani. Subsequently, the adjunct regions of Ndjili and Matete were incorporated.[43]

After gaining its independence on 30 June 1960, following riots in 1959, the Republic of the Congo elected its first prime minister, Patrice Lumumba whose perceived pro-Soviet leanings were viewed as a threat by Western interests. This being the height of the Cold War, the U.S. and Belgium did not want to lose control of the strategic wealth of the Congo, in particular its uranium. Less than a year after Lumumba's election, the Belgians and the U.S. bought the support of his Congolese rivals and set in motion the events that culminated in Lumumba's assassination.[45] In 1964, Moïse Tshombe decreed the expulsion of all nationals of Republic of the Congo, Burundi and Mali, as well as all political refugees from Rwanda.[46][47][48][49] In 1965, with the help of the U.S. and Belgium, Joseph-Désiré Mobutu seized power in the Congo. He initiated a policy of "Authenticity", attempting to renativize the names of people and places in the country. On 2 May 1966, the government announced that the nation's major cities would be restored to their pre-colonial names, effective on 30 June, the sixth anniversary of independence.[50] Léopoldville was renamed Kinshasa, for a village named Kinshasa that once stood near the site. Kinshasa grew rapidly under Mobutu, drawing people from across the country who came in search of their fortunes or to escape ethnic strife elsewhere, thus adding to the many ethnicities and languages already found there.[40]

Urban history

Colonial urban planning

The arrival of the first locomotive in Léopoldville, Congo Free State, ca. 1898
Photograph of Kinshasa Central Station, ca. 1905. A small locomotive is seen at the platform alongside a series of freight cars. Several Congolese workers and passengers are present, as well as a European colonial official.

European urban development began in 1881 and was guided by rigid planning principles aimed at preserving an orderly and aesthetically pleasing environment, emphasizing open space and vegetation.[51] A major catalyst for urban expansion was the construction of the Matadi–Léopoldville Railway, initiated in 1890 and completed in 1911. This infrastructure project was emblematic of colonial progress and served as a critical link between the port of Léopoldville and the coastal city of Matadi.[52] Upon its completion, the station area began to transform, with the erection of prefabricated residences known as "Danish houses", imported from Belgium. These permanent structures gradually replaced the temporary tents that had accommodated early explorers, soldiers, and mercenaries.[52] As Léopoldville developed into an administrative and military center, agents of the Congo Free State—and, after 1908, those of the Belgian Congo—settled in the area. Europeans often took on multiple roles, functioning as engineers, architects, carpenters, and builders.[52] They were supported by mercenaries and trained African laborers, who were instrumental in the physical construction. By 1902, the Kitambo (now Kintambo) area was entirely occupied by European constructions.[52] The urban core expanded as surrounding villages grew, drawn by the prospects of employment and commerce. These settlements would eventually constitute the earliest cités indigènes—designated residential areas for the African population.[52]

A 1942 view of Léopoldville from the balcony of the A.B.C. Hotel. Established in 1914, the A.B.C. Hotel was the city's first hotel complex, constructed by the Compagnie Commerciale et Agricole d'Alimentation du Bas-Congo (ABC), a subsidiary of the Compagnie du Congo pour le Commerce et l'Industrie (CCCI), which also oversaw the construction of the Matadi–Léopoldville Railway. The hotel formed part of a broader colonial initiative to expand infrastructure and hospitality services in the Belgian Congo.[53][54]

At this early stage, the connection between Léopoldville (commonly referred to as "Léo") and Kinshasa consisted of an eight-kilometer track that was often impassable during the rainy season. Transportation was rudimentary, with a few bicycles, limited private cars, and even dromedaries in use, as public transit infrastructure was virtually nonexistent.[52] In 1911, George Moulaert, an influential colonial administrator, drafted a comprehensive urban plan for Léopoldville and the greater Kinshasa area. This blueprint would guide spatial development for the coming decades.[55][52] Ironically, World War I accelerated local economic activity. The Belgian Congo, largely cut off from Europe, experienced a period of relative prosperity. Motorboats and trucks increasingly replaced traditional forms of transport, such as canoes and human porters.[52] By the end of the war in 1918, Léopoldville had emerged as a dynamic urban center, rivaling other Congolese cities and attracting the attention of Belgian architects, who viewed the city as a potential model for colonial urban experimentation. Colonial urbanization remained tightly controlled and reflected the aspirations and limitations of Belgian policy.[52] In 1922, a decree mandated that large companies provide housing for their African workers. While major firms such as Huileries du Congo Belge (HCB) complied by building workers' camps, smaller enterprises often failed to meet these requirements.[56] The existing framework, governed by the decree on "the labor contract between natives and civilized masters", proved insufficient to meet growing housing demands.[56] In response, religious missions extended loans to African residents for self-construction, though they were quickly overwhelmed by demand. A special fund was subsequently established to provide interest-free loans for the construction of houses using locally available materials.[56]

Segregation

The Kinshasa Central Market was launched in January 1944 to serve the commercial needs of the African population as urban development and colonial segregation measures grew more pronounced.

Colonial authorities enforced a racially segregated urban model. African residents were confined to separate indigenous quarters, known as cités indigènes, such as Léo I and Léo II.[51] These zones were delineated by colonial authorities who allocated land in rudimentary grids. Lacking modern infrastructure like sewers, these neighborhoods only had basic sanitation facilities, typically simple pit latrines made from a hole dug or drilled into the ground.[51] During the 1920s, the urban growth brought the indigenous quarters into proximity with European residential areas, particularly near the Matadi–Kinshasa Railway and the Boulevard Albert 1er (now Boulevard du 30 Juin).[51] This spatial convergence led to heightened concerns among European settlers regarding public health and urban hygiene, leading the Léopoldville Urban Committee in 1933 to implement a buffer known as the "neutral zone".[57][51] Although an 800-meter-wide zone was recommended, the implemented buffer measured only 250 to 300 meters due to logistical constraints and exemptions granted to some Europeans residing in the area.[57][51] This zone, referred to as Parc De Bock—today the Kinshasa Botanical Garden—was created by District Commissioner Fernand De Bock and agronomist Roeck.[51] The zone also housed the Kinshasa Zoological Garden and served both as a recreational area for European residents and as a sanitary barrier between the European and indigenous quarters. Vegetable gardens, maintained by unemployed volunteers, were cultivated within the park.[51] Located immediately south of the neutral zone, the indigenous area included notable facilities such as Ndolo Airport, a market, the botanical and zoological gardens, Kinshasa General Hospital, a wireless telegraph station (TSF), a golf course, a cemetery, and Camp Léopold II (now Camp Kokolo).[57][58][59]

African housing and post-World War II urban development

A busy city square in Léopoldville, 1943

Belgian colonial authorities, motivated by a paternalistic ideology associated with the so-called "civilizing mission", initiated efforts to provide formal housing for the African population, particularly for those employed in urban areas. In the aftermath of the Second World War, a large-scale residential project was launched in Dendale—present-day Kasa-Vubu commune—on 407 hectares of land.[57] The development was overseen by the Service de la Population Noire under the direction of Dendale, from whom the area took its name. This "Nouvelle Cité" was among the first planned residential zones for Congolese workers. By 1947, just two years after its inception, the area housed over 8,000 residents, including future President Joseph Kasa-Vubu.

To further address housing needs for the African population, the Office des Cités Africaines (OCA) was tasked with urban development. Beginning in 1949, under a ten-year plan, OCA spearheaded projects involving urban design, infrastructure, community facilities, and housing construction.[51] Over 40,000 homes were built by 1959, following a controlled, segregationist approach. Planning responsibilities were initially led by urban planner Georges Ricquier and later taken over by Maurice Heymans in 1953.[51] The new city plan preserved European dominance over the historical center (La Gombe), limiting expansion to adjacent zones and promoting industrial development in Limete.[51]

Post-independence expansion

Post-1950s urban expansion reflected more inclusive and voluntary housing policies. Communes like Kasa-Vubu and Ngiri-Ngiri featured structured housing with proper streets, sanitation systems, twin houses, and single-level row buildings. Some housing areas were self-built but still regulated, with residents adhering to official layouts and construction guidelines based on their resources.[51] Between 1954 and 1960, OCA developed Matete, Bandalungwa, and Lemba, alongside the satellite city of Ndjili. These included prearranged roads, drainage systems, sewer networks, and paved primary access routes.[51]

For the first time, two-story houses and collective apartment buildings appeared, particularly in Bandalungwa, Matete, and Lemba. Kalamu followed with the expansion of Camp Kaouka and the 20 May neighborhood beyond the Funa River.[51] Further east, across the Yolo River, residential development continued in Limete and its accompanying industrial zone.[51]

Unrest in 1991 and the First Congo War

Further information: First Congo War

In 1991 the city had to fend off rioting soldiers, who were protesting the government's failure to pay them. Subsequently a rebel uprising began, which in 1997 finally brought down the regime of Mobutu.[40]

The eruption of the First Congo War (1996–1997), closely tied to the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, significantly intensified instability in Kinshasa and across the broader region. Following the genocide, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), under Paul Kagame, launched military operations into eastern Zaire, not only targeting Hutu insurgents but also committing large-scale violence against Hutu civilians.[60][61][62] UNHCR consultant Robert Gersony estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 people were killed monthly in mid-1994 alone. The influx of over two million Rwandan Hutu refugees into eastern Zaire further exacerbated security and humanitarian tensions, particularly in provinces such as South Kivu.[63][64][65] President Mobutu's regime proved incapable of managing the crisis, thus facilitating the conditions for war.[66] By 1996, foreign-backed militias—including the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the Ugandan People's Defence Force (UPDF), and Burundi's Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB)—began supporting Congolese Tutsi groups such as the Banyamulenge.[66] Belgian legal and political scholar Filip Reyntjens describes the First Congo War as the convergence of two overlapping goals: the genuine resistance of Congolese Tutsi, who feared retaliation, and the strategic use of this resistance by the Rwandan government to justify the RPA's military involvement in Zaire.[67]

A view of the commune of Matete, which became a site of public executions conducted by units of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) and the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA).

The fall of Kinshasa in May 1997 to the Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, marked the beginning of serious human rights abuses in the capital.[68] In the days following the city's capture, AFDL and RPA forces carried out extrajudicial killings, acts of torture, rape, and targeted former regime officials as well as members of the elite Special Presidential Division (DSP).[68] On 17 May, Mobutu was overthrown in an AFDL-led coup.[69] Between 18 and 22 May 1997, volunteer teams from the Congolese Red Cross collected between 228 and 318 bodies in Kinshasa and its outskirts and evacuated wounded civilians to local medical facilities. Reports from the United Nations Special Rapporteur and the United Nations Mapping Team indicate that the security situation deteriorated further between May and June 1997.[68] During this period, AFDL and RPA units, often with the participation of civilians, carried out public executions, frequently incinerating the bodies in neighborhoods such as Masina, Matete, and Kingabwa (Limete commune). At the GLM (Groupe Litho Moboti) building, detainees—many of them former members of the Zairean Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises; FAZ) or political opponents—were routinely executed and their bodies discarded in the Congo River, a practice halted only after intervention by human rights advocates alerted by local fishermen.[68] In September 1997, the security crisis in Kinshasa was compounded by cross-border shelling from Brazzaville. Armed factions involved in a separate conflict in Brazzaville launched artillery fire into Kinshasa between 29 September and 1 October, killing at least 21 civilians. In retaliation, FAC and RPA forces shelled Brazzaville for two consecutive days.[68]

Systematic torture, detention conditions, and crackdowns on political opposition

Security forces also engaged in systemic torture and abuse. In June and July 1997, detainees in military prisons at Kokolo and Tshatshi camps suffered ill-treatment that led to numerous deaths from torture, disease, and medical neglect.[68] Reports from late 1997 indicate that at least 24 wounded former members of the Rwandan Armed Forces (Forces Armées Rwandaises, ex-FAR) soldiers disappeared after being transferred from hospitals to military camps, where they were subjected to threats and degrading treatment.[68] The militarization of Kinshasa's public life continued under the new regime. Units of the Congolese Air Force (Force Aérienne Congolaise, FAC) and the RPA, particularly the young child soldiers known as Kadogo, imposed harsh disciplinary measures on civilians, including public floggings and whippings with the chicotte, a "leather-thonged whipping device". These punishments often resulted in severe internal injuries and deaths due to internal bleeding.[68]

Beginning in June 1997, the new authorities ordered ex-FAZ to undergo political re-education at Kitona military base in Bas-Congo (now Kongo Central). In their absence, soldiers from the newly formed FAC and the RPA occupied military camps in Kinshasa, including CETA and Tshatshi, where they raped large numbers of women and girls—many of whom were family members of ex-FAZ soldiers. Victims were often subjected to sexual slavery and forced domestic labor.[68] At Kokolo military camp, similar atrocities occurred, including gang rapes and the random abduction and assault of women in nearby neighborhoods. At a location known as "Camp Américain", particularly brutal crimes were reported, including the case of a girl who was gang-raped, tortured, and had hot wax poured over her genitals.[68] Violence against women extended beyond military compounds. Numerous reports from the period indicate that FAC and RPA soldiers carried out systematic sexual violence across Kinshasa, including against sex workers and women detained arbitrarily.[68]

Political repression under Kabila's new government intensified after the prohibition of political party activity. Opposition activists and their families were frequently subjected to harassment, arbitrary arrest, and torture. Women related to political figures were especially vulnerable to sexual violence during state crackdowns.[68] Activists from major opposition parties such as the Parti Lumumbiste Unifié (PALU), Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), and the Front pour la Survie de la Démocratie au Congo (FSDC) were frequent targets. In July 1997, FAC and RPA soldiers killed between one and four PALU members during a protest crackdown and injured several others.[68] The residence of PALU leader Antoine Gizenga was ransacked, resulting in the death of an activist and the severe beating of six more. Documented cases of torture and rape continued into 1998. Notably, on 10 December 1997, two sisters of the FSDC president were gang-raped by FAC and RPA personnel.[68] The FSDC leader himself, a former Mobutu loyalist, was arrested in February 1998 and subjected to torture while detained in both the central prison and the Mikonga military training facility.[68]

Second Congo War

Further information: Second Congo War

The eruption of the Second Congo War in August 1998 plunged Kinshasa into a period of acute insecurity and military confrontation. The conflict was precipitated by a dramatic breakdown in relations between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his former allies in Rwanda and Uganda. Kabila accused these states of undermining Congolese sovereignty and harboring ambitions to orchestrate a coup d'état.[70][71] Allegations also surfaced that the United States had provided indirect support to Rwanda during this period, including claims of military training by the Rwanda Interagency Assessment Team (RIAT), ostensibly to secure access to the DRC's vast mineral wealth.[72][73] American individuals and institutions, such as Roger Winter of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, were further implicated in allegedly abetting insurgent activities.[72] In response to these tensions, President Kabila dismissed Rwandan General James Kabarebe from his position as Chief of Staff and demanded the withdrawal of all Rwandan military personnel from Congolese territory.[70][71] This move provoked a swift counteroffensive, as Rwanda and Uganda backed the formation of a new rebel group—the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD)—which launched its rebellion from the city of Goma on 2 August 1998.[74] The insurrection was spearheaded by mutinous units within the Congolese armed forces in coordination with Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian troops. Within weeks, RCD forces had captured large swathes of territory in the eastern and northern parts of the country, including regions of North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and Équateur Province.[74] Their advance toward Kinshasa and the western province of Bas-Congo was halted by military intervention from Angola and Zimbabwe, both of which deployed troops in support of Kabila's government.[74]

This escalation led to the effective partition of the DRC. Kabila's administration, reinforced by military contingents from Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan, retained authority over the western and central regions. Conversely, the eastern part of the country fell under the control of the RCD's military wing, the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC), which was supported by Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian forces.[74] In response, Kabila aligned with a range of non-state actors and militias, notably the Mayi-Mayi as well as Rwandan and Burundian Hutu rebel groups including the Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie (FDD) and the Armée de Libération du Rwanda (ALiR), the latter composed in part of former members of the Rwandan Armed Forces and the Interahamwe militia. Uganda, while occupying substantial portions of Orientale Province, simultaneously sponsored the establishment of the Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo (MLC), under the leadership of Jean-Pierre Bemba, to administer the Ugandan-controlled regions of Équateur.[74] Diverging strategic interests between Uganda and Rwanda eventually led to a split within the RCD itself, giving rise to two rival factions: the Rwanda-aligned RCD–Goma and the Uganda-supported RCD–ML.[74] Despite their military superiority, these rebel coalitions faced persistent challenges in exerting full administrative and security control over rural areas, where they were met with sustained resistance from local militias, interethnic hostility, and community mistrust.[75]

Armed confrontation and urban warfare

By late August 1998, Kinshasa became the theater of direct armed confrontation. Forces of the ANC, RPA, and UPDF clashed with troops from FAC and the Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) for control of the capital. The ZDF employed heavy artillery to bombard densely populated neighborhoods, including Kimbanseke, Masina, Ndjili, and the village of Kingatoko, located near the border of Bas-Congo Province.[76] These attacks resulted in the deaths of approximately 50 civilians and left 282 wounded, who were admitted to medical facilities across the capital during the night of 27 to 28 August. The shelling campaign led to mass displacement, as residents fled to safer parts of the city.[76] The ZDF's indiscriminate use of heavy weapons failed to differentiate between military and civilian targets, striking hospitals, religious buildings, and other non-combatant infrastructure. In some instances, Congolese military authorities exacerbated civilian casualties by ordering residents to remain in their homes, thereby preventing rebel fighters from taking shelter in abandoned buildings and leaving civilians exposed to sustained bombardment.[76]

During the same period, humanitarian workers became direct victims of violence. On 28 August 1998, in Mont-Ngafula, FAC soldiers brutally killed two Red Cross volunteers—one by crushing his skull—as they attempted to rescue victims in the Mitendi and Mbenseke areas.[76] The incident left several others severely wounded. Rebel forces further escalated the crisis by targeting strategic infrastructure. On 13 August 1998, troops from the ANC, RPA, and UPDF seized the Inga hydroelectric power station in Bas-Congo Province, halting its turbines for three weeks.[76] This act deprived Kinshasa and parts of Bas-Congo of electricity and water, critically affecting essential services such as hospitals. As a result, mortality rates—particularly among children—increased markedly in medical facilities.[76]

Systematic human rights violations, authoritarian repression, and crackdowns on Cabindan separatists

From the onset of the conflict, Congolese security forces were implicated in widespread human rights abuses, including extrajudicial executions, torture, rape, and arbitrary detentions. Political opponents and ordinary civilians alike were subject to these violations with near-total impunity.[76] Between August 1998 and January 2001, approximately 50 incident reports were submitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and its mechanisms, including the Working Groups on arbitrary detention and enforced disappearances, and the Special Rapporteurs on torture and extrajudicial killings.[76]

Particularly severe abuses were inflicted on members of opposition political parties such as the UDPS and PALU. Victims were often detained in notorious facilities such as the Police d'intervention rapide (PIR), the Direction des renseignements généraux et services spéciaux (DRGS, also known as Kin Mazière), the IPKIN (ex-Circo), and the Kokolo military camp. These sites became centers for torture, sexual violence, and in some cases, extrajudicial execution.[76] A significant crackdown occurred on 28 October 2000, when President Kabila's security services arrested at least 93 individuals—including 60 soldiers and 33 civilians from North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema—on accusations of plotting a coup d'état involving Anselme Masasu Nindaga, a founding member of the AFDL.[76] While some detainees were summarily executed or tortured to death, others were held for over three years and released only after a government-issued general amnesty.[76]

As part of its military alliance with Angola, the Kinshasa government also acted against members of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), a separatist movement advocating independence for the Angolan province of Cabinda.[76] Between 1998 and 1999, the DRC's security forces shuttered FLEC offices in Kinshasa and arrested numerous Cabindan militants. Many of those detained were reportedly tortured; others were forcibly transferred to Angola or remain missing to this day.[76]

Joseph Kabila's rise to power and the shift in the conflict

Claudel André Lubaya, Governor of Kasaï-Occidental, with Joseph Kabila as President.
George W. Bush meets with Joseph Kabila (left), Thabo Mbeki of South Africa (center), and Paul Kagame of Rwanda (right) at the Waldorf Astoria New York.

Following the assassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila on 16 January 2001, the Democratic Republic of the Congo entered a new phase in the protracted national crisis. His son and successor, Joseph Kabila, was swiftly installed as president and sought to redirect the country's trajectory through diplomacy and political dialogue. Central to his early agenda was the de-escalation of armed conflict and the promotion of national reconciliation, particularly through the organization of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD).[77] This initiative aimed to convene representatives from the government, rebel movements, political opposition, and civil society in a comprehensive peace process.[78] In March 2001, the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) deployed personnel to key conflict zones to oversee compliance with the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. However, despite these peacebuilding measures, violence persisted, especially in the eastern provinces of North and South Kivu. The region remained mired in conflict involving various armed factions, including the Mayi-Mayi militias, the FDD, the ALiR, and the ANC.[79]

The formal opening of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue took place on 25 February 2002 in Sun City, South Africa. A preliminary power-sharing accord was reached on 19 April 2002 between President Joseph Kabila and Jean-Pierre Bemba. While the agreement marked progress, it was met with resistance from RCD-Goma and influential opposition parties, notably the UDPS.[79] A significant diplomatic breakthrough occurred on 30 July 2002, when the governments of Rwanda and the DRC signed a peace agreement in Pretoria. Under its terms, Rwanda agreed to withdraw its troops from Congolese territory in return for the disarmament and repatriation of Hutu militias, including the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR).[79] A parallel agreement was signed with Uganda in Luanda on 6 September 2002, outlining a withdrawal plan for Ugandan forces and aiming to restore stability in the war-torn Ituri Province.[79] By the end of that year, the disengagement of foreign military forces had begun, with troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia initiating their withdrawal. The culmination of these efforts was the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement in Pretoria on 17 December 2002. The accord laid the foundation for a transitional power-sharing government and the integration of former belligerents into a unified national army.[79] Despite its ambitions, the peace process remained vulnerable to setbacks. On 1 April 2003, delegates at the Inter-Congolese Dialogue ratified the agreement in Sun City, accompanied by a memorandum detailing transitional governance structures and the integration of armed groups.[79] On 30 June 2003, transitional institutions were formally inaugurated, marking a tentative step toward political stabilization.[79]

Nevertheless, President Joseph Kabila—who remained in power until 2019—faced persistent opposition in Kinshasa. His controversial victory in the 2006 presidential election triggered widespread unrest in the capital, prompting the deployment of European Union forces (EUFOR RD Congo) to support the MONUC in maintaining order.[80][81] Further unrest emerged in 2016 when the Independent National Electoral Commission (Commission Électorale Nationale Indépendante, CENI) announced a two-year delay in holding new presidential elections. The decision ignited mass demonstrations in September and December of that year, characterized by street barricades, violent clashes, and a significant civilian death toll. Schools and businesses across Kinshasa were shuttered amid the turmoil.[81][82]

Geography

Dawn at the banks of the Congo River in Ngaliema commune

Location

Kinshasa is strategically situated on the southern bank of the expansive Malebo Pool, spanning 9,965 square kilometers, configured in a grand crescent shape atop a low-lying, flat terrain with an average elevation hovering around 300 meters.[83][84] Positioned between latitudes 4° and 5° and longitudinal coordinates 15° to 16°32 east, Kinshasa is flanked by the provinces of Mai-Ndombe, Kwilu, and Kwango to the east, while the Congo River delineates its western and northern boundaries, naturally demarcating the border with the Republic of the Congo. To the south, it is demarcated by the Kongo Central Province.[85]

The Congo River is the second longest river in Africa after the Nile and has the continent's greatest discharge. As a waterway it provides a means of transport for much of the Congo Basin; it is navigable for river barges between Kinshasa and Kisangani; many of its tributaries are also navigable. The river is an important source of hydroelectric power, and downstream from Kinshasa it has the potential to generate power equivalent to the usage of roughly half of Africa's population.[86]

Relief

A view of Congo River from Kinshasa
Sunset by the Congo River in Kinshasa

Topographically, Kinshasa has a marshy, alluvial plain, with altitudes ranging from 275 to 300 meters, along with hilly terrain that elevates from 310 to 370 meters.[87][85][88] The city has four principal features: the Malebo Pool, a vast expanse of water with islands and islets; the Kinshasa Plain, which is a highly urbanizable space, but susceptible to drainage issues; the Terrace, which is a series of low ridges overlooking the plain; and the Hills Area, which is characterized by deep valleys and cirque-shaped formations.[85]

The Malebo Pool spans over 35 kilometers in length and 25 kilometers in width and is encircled by Ngaliema Municipality to the west and Maluku Municipality to the east, traversing through Gombe, Barumbu, Limete, Masina, and Nsele municipalities.[85] The Kinshasa Plain has a banana-like shape and is surrounded by eastward-oriented hills. Its low sandy alluvial masses extend from Maluku Municipality in the east to the western foothills of Ngaliema, covering approximately 20,000 hectares.[85]

The Terrace is mainly situated in the city's western expanse, between N'djili and Mount Ngafula. It comprises stony blocks of soft sandstone and silica-covered yellow clay, topped with brown silt, and ranges from 10 to 25 meters in height. It retains vestiges of an ancient surface.[85] The Hills Area commences several kilometers from the Malebo Pool and is characterized by deep valleys and cirque-shaped formations. These hills reach heights surpassing 700 meters and exhibit gentle, rounded contours sculpted by local rivers.[85] While their eastern counterparts may reflect remnants of the Batéké Plateau, their origins in the west and south remain enigmatic. Their natural erosion processes are exacerbated by human intervention, sometimes assuming catastrophic proportions.[85]

Hydrography

Congo River in full flow at Parc de la Vallée de la Nsele

Kinshasa's hydrographic network encompasses the Congo River and its principal left bank tributaries, traversing the city from south to north. These include the Lukunga, Ndjili, Nsele, Bombo, or Mai-Ndombe rivers and the Mbale.[85][89][90] Unfortunately, these waterways are polluted due to the city's demographic pressures and inadequate sanitation.[85]

Geology

Geologically, the soil in Kinshasa is of the Arenoferrasol category,[91][92] characterized by fine sands with a clay content typically below 20%, low organic matter, and absorbent complex saturation.[85] The basement is composed of Precambrian bedrock, featuring finely stratified red sandstone often infused with feldspar. This rock is visible at the rapids' base near Mount Ngaliema and south of the N'djili River, and effectively withstands erosive forces.[85]

Vegetation

A view of Congo River from Kinshasa

Kinshasa's vegetation comprises gallery forests, grassy formations, ruderal plant groups, and aquatic formations. These gallery forests, found along the main watercourses within humid valleys of the Congolese guinéo ombrophile type, have degraded into highly exploited pre-forest fallows, manifesting as reclusive foresters of varying ages.[85] Ruderal plant groups line railway tracks within narrow strips, reflecting the region's vegetation cover's discontinuity and repetition. Kinshasa is home to diverse vegetation types, each intricately linked to specific ecological parameters.[85]

Residential and commercial areas

Kinshasa is a city of sharp contrasts, with affluent residential and commercial areas and three universities alongside sprawling slums.[93] The older and wealthier part of the city (ville basse) is located on a flat area of alluvial sand and clay near the river, while many newer areas are found on the eroding red soil of surrounding hills.[1][80] Older parts of the city were laid out on a geometric pattern, with de facto racial segregation becoming de jure in 1929 as the European and African neighborhoods grew closer together. City plans of the 1920s–1950s featured a cordon sanitaire or buffer between the white and black neighborhoods, which included the central market as well as parks and gardens for Europeans.[94]

Urban planning in post-independence Kinshasa has been limited. The Mission Française d'Urbanisme drew up some plans in the 1960s which envisioned a greater role for automobile transportation but did not predict the city's significant population growth. Thus much of the urban structure has developed without guidance from a master plan. According to UN-Habitat, the city is expanding by eight square kilometers per year. It describes many of the new neighborhoods as slums, built in unsafe conditions with inadequate infrastructure.[95] Nevertheless, spontaneously developed areas have in many cases extended the grid street plan of the original city.[93]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Communes of Kinshasa
See also: Subdivisions of the DR Congo § Territorial organization
A map of Kinshasa presenting its Communes.

Kinshasa is both a city (ville in French) and a province, one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nevertheless, it has city subdivisions and is divided into 24 communes (municipalities), which in turn are divided into 369 quarters and 21 embedded groupings.[96] Maluku, the rural commune to the east of the urban area, accounts for 79% of the 9,965 km2 (3,848 sq mi) total land area of the city-province,[28] with a population of 200,000–300,000.[93] The communes are grouped into four districts which are not in themselves administrative divisions.

The 24 communes of Kinshasa
 Flag of Kinshasa
Abbreviations : Kal. (Kalamu), Kin. (Kinshasa), K.-V. (Kasa-Vubu), Ling. (Lingwala), Ng.-Ng. (Ngiri-Ngiri)

Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, Kinshasa has a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw). Its lengthy rainy season spans from October through May, with a relatively short dry season, between June and September. Kinshasa lies south of the equator, so its dry season begins around its winter solstice, which is in June. This is in contrast to African cities further north featuring this climate where the dry season typically begins around December. Kinshasa's dry season is slightly cooler than its wet season, though temperatures remain relatively constant throughout the year.

More information Climate data for Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Month ...

Parks and gardens

Kinshasa is home to a diverse range of parks and gardens:

Nsele Valley Park, Kinshasa, October 2021

Demographics

Population

Night view of Kinshasa along Boulevard du 30 Juin, with traffic lights forming red and white streaks beneath towering buildings and glowing signage.

Kinshasa is the most populous city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with its metropolitan area estimated to host approximately 17.8 million people as of mid-2025.[104][105] It ranks as the most densely populated city within the DRC, the third-largest metropolitan area in Africa, and the fourth-most populous capital city globally.

Since the early 20th century, Kinshasa has experienced substantial demographic growth, influenced by urban migration, natural population increase, and various political crises. In 1889, the population of Kinshasa was recorded at a mere 5,000.[106] By 1910, this figure had doubled to 10,000, and by 1930, it escalated to 39,530, driven by an annual increase of approximately 4,700 residents.[107] Between 1935 and 1945, the annual growth rate increased from 1.1% to 1.5%, largely attributable to economic revitalization efforts associated with World War II, which necessitated significant labor forces to support wartime industries mandated by the colonial administration.[107] During the 1940s, the city's population surged from 50,000 to over 200,000.[108] By 1960, coinciding with Congo's independence, Kinshasa expanded to cover 5,500 hectares and approximately 400,000 residents were recorded.[109] Following independence, the city experienced heightened rural-to-urban migration, population displacement due to armed conflicts, and a natural annual population increase of 3.8%.[109] The national census of 1984 recorded 2.6 million residents,[110] while estimates for 2005 varied between 5.3 million and 7.3 million.[93] By 2015, the population approached 12 million, placing Kinshasa among the world's largest metropolises.[107]

2015 demography
Communes Land area

(in km2)[111]

 Population[111] Density

(inh. per km2)[111]

Kimbanseke 237.8 2,631,205 11,066
Ngaliema 224.3 2,025,942 9,032
Masina 69.7 1,571,124 22,532
Ndjili 11.4 1,157,619 106,721
Kisenso 16.6 1,157,619 69,736
Lemba 23.7 1,120,992 47,299
Selembao 23.2 1,038,819 44,815
Limete 67.6 1,330,874 15,294
Kalamu 6.6 974,669 146,787
Bumbu 5.3 905,943 170,933
Matete 4.9 854,908 175,186
Mont Ngafula 358.9 718,197 2,001
Makala 5.6 698,495 124,731
Bandalungwa 6.8 934,821 93,082
Ngaba 4 539,135 134,784
Maluku 7.948 494,332 62
Ngiri-Ngiri 3.4 481,110 141,503
Kinshasa 2.9 453,632 158,060
Kasa-Vubu 5 437,824 86,870
Barumbu 4.7 413,628 87,633
Nsele 898.8 387,790 431
Kintambo 2.7 340,260 125,096
Lingwala 2.9 277,831 96,469
Gombe 29.3 89,080 3,037
Metropolitan Kinshasa 9.965 12,000,066 1,200

According to United Nations Human Settlements Programme, the city receives an average of 390,000 new migrants annually, many fleeing conflict or economic hardship.[112] Projections anticipate that Kinshasa's metropolitan population will reach 35 million by 2050, 58 million by 2075, and 83 million by 2100, making it one of the largest projected urban areas on the planet.[113]

Ethnic composition and other groups

More information Ethnic group, Traditional status ...

Other groups closely linked to Kinshasa's early history include the Yaka, Banunu, and Bayanzi, primarily from Kongo Central. These populations were active in river-based trade and had longstanding ties to the Pool region before colonization.[115]

Internal and international migration, and urbanization

The city's rapid urbanization has been driven largely by internal migration. Beginning during the colonial era and intensifying after independence in 1960, waves of Congolese from various provinces moved to Kinshasa in search of economic opportunity, political stability, and access to education and services.[116] This demographic surge was channeled through two principal corridors: a river route from northern and central Congo and a road route through Bandundu and Kongo Central. The migration intensified during times of national crisis—especially during political upheavals in the 1990s and protracted conflicts in eastern DRC—transforming Kinshasa into a refuge for displaced populations from across the country.[116]

A woman dressed in a traditional African dress with a bright pink headscarf beside her young daughter wearing a maroon hijab and a patterned skirt in Kinshasa.

Beyond domestic migrations, Kinshasa has historically exerted a centripetal pull on transnational populations from across the African continent and beyond. The Lari, from the Republic of the Congo, settled on fertile vacant lands and introduced new agricultural practices, including vegetable gardening.[116] Equally salient was the arrival of the Coastmen, or Ndingari—a term for West African migrants from present-day Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Senegal, Benin, Guinea, and Togo. Predominantly Muslim, they were active in commerce, public works, and artisanal trades.[116] They also influenced the city's cultural landscape by introducing wax-printed textiles and socio-familial practices including polygamy.[116] Among the most demographically and culturally prominent expatriate communities are the Zombo, originally from Maquela do Zombo in Angola's Uíge Province. As the most populous foreign African demographic in Kinshasa, the Zombo initially migrated as traders and laborers.[116] From the 1950s onward, they were extensively conscripted to work at the port of CITAS (Compagnie Industrielle et de Transport au Stanley Pool), where their primary responsibilities included the handling and conveyance of colonial commodities such as palm derivatives, copal resin, cotton, and ivory.[116]

The Zombo became known for their physical endurance and work ethic, making them ideal laborers in the eyes of colonial authorities. Outside the workplace, they introduced door-to-door commerce in indigenous neighborhoods, selling rice, doughnuts, and beans, a practice that evolved into mobile street vending using handmade carts (pousse-pousse).[116] Their numbers escalated markedly during World War II, spurred by both economic incentives in the Belgian Congo and repressive governance in Angola under António de Oliveira Salazar. The authoritarian policies of the Estado Novo regime—particularly the brutal enforcement tactics of the PIDE (Portuguese secret police)—pushed many Angolans to seek refuge in Kinshasa.[116] Belgian colonial authorities, constrained by porous borders and entrenched kinship networks among the Bakongo across both nations, were largely ineffectual in stemming this migratory tide.[116]

In contrast to other diasporic groups, the Zombo exhibited a pronounced tendency toward permanent settlement and integration. Avoiding repatriation, they raised successive generations in Kinshasa, where they assimilated both culturally and linguistically.[116] Youths often enlisted in the Force Publique, while their elders gained renown for frugality, temperance, and entrepreneurial self-sufficiency.[116] Over time, many transitioned into artisanal vocations and small-scale manufacturing, introducing innovations such as handcrafted women's footwear fashioned from repurposed automobile tires.[116]

Language

The official language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, of which Kinshasa is the capital, is French (See: Kinshasa French vocabulary). Kinshasa is the largest officially Francophone city in the world, though many residents struggle to speak it.[117][118][119] Although Lingala is widely used as a spoken language, French is the language of street signs, posters, newspapers, government documents, schools; it dominates plays, television, and the press, and it is used in vertical relationships among people of different social classes. People of the same class, however, speak the Congolese languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba or Swahili) among themselves.[120] Kinshasa hosted the 14th Francophonie Summit in October 2012.[121]

Government and politics

Statue of Lumumba, and behind it the Limete Tower

Administrative history

Founded on 1 August 1881, as Léopold II's Station, Kinshasa has maintained a distinct administrative status over time, eventually becoming the administrative center for the Stanley Pool District, Haute-N'sele, and Panzi-Kasaï.[122] A Royal Decree promulgated on 11 April 1914 instituted a territorial reform in the Belgian Congo, reaffirming Kinshasa's dual role as the colonial capital and the central administrative seat for the districts of Bas-Congo, Kwango, Kasaï, Sankuru, and Léopoldville.[122] In 1941, Legislative Ordinance No. 293/AIMO of 25 June granted Kinshasa official city status and established an Urban Committee. Following Congolese independence, the colonial charter was replaced by the Fundamental Law of 19 May 1960, which designated Kinshasa as a neutral city and the political seat of national institutions.[122] This legal evolution culminated in Ordinance No. 68/024 of 20 January 1968, which granted Kinshasa the same politico-administrative status comparable to that of the provinces, thus expanding its communal subdivisions from 11 to 24. The advent of the Third Republic, as codified in the 2006 Constitution, officially institutionalized Kinshasa as a fully-fledged province.[122]

Political organization

Pursuant to Article 2 of Law No. 08/012 of 31 July 2008, a province is defined as a political and administrative component of the national territory endowed with legal personality and managerial autonomy over its human, economic, financial, and technical resources.[123][122] Kinshasa exercises its constitutional mandates through two principal organs: the Provincial Assembly and the Provincial Government.[122]

Provincial Assembly

See also: Provincial Assembly of Kinshasa

According to Article 7 of the same law, the Provincial Assembly serves as the city's legislative body. Its core prerogatives include enacting laws (by way of edicts), electing the provincial governor and vice-governor, and overseeing the provincial government.[123][122] Comprising 48 deputies elected by universal suffrage, the Assembly is administratively structured with a Bureau composed of a President, Vice-President, Questeur, Rapporteur, and Deputy Rapporteur.[122] The Assembly's legislative authority and procedural framework are outlined in Articles 11, 12, and 13 of Organic Law No. 08/016 from 7 October 2008, which governs decentralized territorial entities.[123][122]

Provincial government and public services

The provincial executive branch is constituted by the Governor, the Vice-Governor, and a cabinet of provincial ministers. The operation of the Kinshasa provincial government, like those of other provinces, is based on the provisions of Law No. 08/012 of 7 October 2008.[123][122] Ministerial portfolios are regulated by Arrêté No. SC/0121/BGV/2007 of 30 July 2007, which specifies the jurisdiction of each provincial ministry. The Provincial Director, serving as the Governor's principal administrative advisor, oversees the coordination of fifty departmental directorates and inspectorates.[122] These entities function as provincial extensions of national ministries, entrusted with the territorial execution of state policies and regulatory directives.[122]

Since 2008, the Kinshasa provincial government has established several technical public services, collectively known as "urban régies" to improve administrative effectiveness and city management.[124][122] These services operate under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Kinshasa.[124][122] The principal entities include:

More information No., Agency ...

Communal and neighborhood

The 24 communes are recognized as administrative subdivisions of the city, each further divided into smaller entities known as quartiers (neighborhoods). As decentralized territorial entities (entités territoriales décentralisées, ETD), the communes are endowed with legal personality and administrative autonomy.[127] Each commune operates through two main governing bodies: the Conseil Communal (Communal Council) and the Collège Exécutif Communal (Communal Executive College).[127]

  • The Conseil Communal serves as the commune's deliberative body. Its members, known as Conseillers Communaux, are elected by direct universal suffrage. The council deliberates on all matters of communal interest, including those of an economic, social, cultural, or technical nature. It also elects the Bourgmestre (Mayor) and Deputy Mayor through indirect suffrage and oversees the implementation of the executive's program of action.[127]
  • The Collège Exécutif Communal is responsible for the management of the commune and the implementation of decisions made by the Communal Council. It comprises the Bourgmestre, Deputy Bourgmestre, and two communal aldermen (échevins communaux), all appointed based on merit, credibility, and community representation. This executive body coordinates all tasks of communal interest and is led by the Bourgmestre, assisted by the Deputy.[127]
Two women carrying a transparent ballot box marked with the logo of the Independent National Electoral Commission (CENI) at the Palais du Peuple.

Every commune is managed by a Bourgmestre and their Deputy, and each is provisioned with public services such as civil registry (État civil), sanitation, and general population services. These are supported by technical services representing central ministries, made available to municipal authorities to enable the exercise of devolved functions.[127] These technical services include urban planning and development, rural infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries and livestock, public health, education, environmental protection, alternative energy, finance, budget, demographic statistics, and more.[127] Additionally, specialized branches such as the Agence Nationale de Renseignements (ANR), the Direction Générale de Migration (DGM), and the Commissariat Communal of the Congolese National Police maintain a presence at the communal level.[127]

Neighborhoods (quartiers) function as subunits of the communes. As of 2015, the 24 communes of Kinshasa are divided into approximately 310 neighborhoods. These quartiers vary in structure depending on whether they fall within formally planned urban zones or more informally developed areas.[127] Popular semi-urban neighborhoods often exceed the size of planned residential districts and represent the core of the city's urban makeup. Each neighborhood is administered through a simplified structure that includes the chef de quartier (neighborhood chief), the chef de quartier adjoint (deputy), the secrétaire du quartier (secretary), the chargé de la population (population officer), and two to three agents recenseurs (enumerators).[127] These officials are appointed by the Governor of Kinshasa and assigned to their respective territories.[127] In highly populated semi-urban neighborhoods, administrative overload is common due to insufficient infrastructure for public health, urban roads, potable water, and electricity—resources that remain concentrated in lower-density, affluent residential areas.[127]

Politics

As of 2015, the Mouvement de Libération du Congo (MLC) held legislative predominance; however, the provincial elections of 20 December 2023 resulted in a power shift in favor of the presidential coalition, the Union Sacrée de la Nation (USN), led by President Félix Tshisekedi's Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), which secured 14 seats.[122] Daniel Bumba assumed the governorship on 21 June 2024.[128] Kinshasa wields sovereign powers, encompassing the authority to issue passports and to act on behalf of the country in international forums.[80] The city also hosts the headquarters of the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), formerly known as MONUC.[129] In 2016, the United Nations bolstered its peacekeeping presence in Kinshasa in response to civil unrest related to President Joseph Kabila's controversial extension of power.[130]

In addition to state institutions, international and non-governmental organizations exert significant influence on local development and governance.[131] The Belgian development agency, Enabel, has been a key actor since 2016 through its sponsorship of the Programme d'Appui aux Initiatives de Développement Communautaire (PAIDECO), a €6 million initiative aimed at stimulating economic development in the region. The initial implementation took place in Kimbanseke, a densely populated hill commune with an estimated population of nearly one million.[132] In a strategic effort to address urban overcrowding and stimulate regional development, the provincial government established the Comité Stratégique pour la Supervision du Projet d'Extension de la Ville de Kinshasa (CSSPEVK) in October 2023. The committee, under the leadership of a provincial coordinator, was tasked with overseeing the "Kinshasa Kia Mona" urban expansion project in the Maluku district.[133][134][135]

Economy

See also: Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Street scenes in Kinshasa, Zaire, captured in 1973, by Dutch photographer Rob Mieremet.

Historically, Kinshasa experienced a period of robust economic growth driven predominantly by a flourishing industrial sector. During its economic peak, often nostalgically referred to as la belle époque, the city's industrial activities spanned diverse domains including food processing, textiles, metallurgy, and assembly-line production.[136] These industries produced goods for domestic consumption and international export. It was during this era that Kinshasa earned the affectionate monikers Kin la belle, Kin-Kiese, and Kin la joie.[136] By the 1970s, Kinshasa had become a critical economic hub in Zaire, employing approximately 25% of the country's salaried workforce and accounting for nearly half (50%) of the national wage bill. Surveys conducted between 1974 and 1977 indicated that 33.7% of Kinshasa's working population held positions as executives or skilled laborers, with respective shares of 6.5% and 27.2%.[136] In 1980, an estimated 412,000 people were in stable employment, supporting an average household of six. However, by the 1990s, inflation and economic deterioration significantly diminished purchasing power.[136] Studies revealed that by 1988, only 20% of workers could meet basic living costs on their wages, and by 1990, Kinshasa had become more expensive to live in than other interior cities of the country.[136] In 1977, wages could cover 62% of basic needs and 51% of family needs; these figures declined steeply in the subsequent decades.[136]

Modern buildings on the outskirts of Kinshasa, ca. 1980–1993

The 1990s marked a particularly devastating decade for Kinshasa's economy, beginning with waves of looting in 1991 and 1992. These events inflicted severe damage on the city's economic infrastructure. In the aftermath of these upheavals, an estimated 300,000 executives and skilled workers lost their jobs, with no prospect of compensation.[136] According to the Agence Nationale des Entrepreneurs du Zaïre (ANEZA), Kinshasa lost approximately 100,000 jobs during this period. Subsequent years of political instability and warfare further paralyzed the city's already weakened economic sectors.[136] Since then, industrial activity in Kinshasa has largely stagnated or been dismantled altogether. The city's rapidly expanding population, combined with a shortage of economic reintegration mechanisms for unemployed graduates from technical and tertiary institutions, has worsened the unemployment crisis.[136] The dismantling of the industrial sector has been significant, with much of the wage-earning population absorbed into the informal sector. This informal economy has now become the city's primary employment source, engaging nearly 70% of Kinshasa's total labor force.[136]

Mining sector and export growth

Marsavco

In 2022, Kinshasa's GDP exceeded initial expectations by expanding 8.5%, as reported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The mining industry in the DRC has been instrumental in maintaining a positive economic outlook, even amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Raw material exports, particularly cobalt and copper, have experienced historically high prices, resulting in substantial investment in the industry. Parenthetically, production has increased, and Covid-related restrictions have eased, leading to sustained economic growth.[137][138]

Fiscal performance and debt sustainability

Despite facing external challenges, including the repercussions of the Russo-Ukrainian War, the DRC has shown fiscal stability. In 2022, tax performance exceeded projections, showcasing improved revenue generation. However, increased expenditures related to security concerns and internal arrears resulted in a deterioration of the overall budget balance. Nevertheless, the DRC's debt risk remains moderate, with public debt at 24.7% of GDP. The approval of the third review of the IMF program reflects the satisfactory performance of the country's reform efforts.[139][138]

Companies, foreign exchange reserves, international support

In front of Government Hall located on Boulevard Du 30 Juin
Gombe is Kinshasa's fastest-growing commune and is a central business district
Employees and families from the US Embassy in Kinshasa

Big manufacturing companies such as Marsavco S.A., All Pack Industries and Angel Cosmetics are located in the center of town (Gombe) in Kinshasa.

There are many other industries, such as Trust Merchant Bank, located in the heart of the city. Food processing is a major industry, and construction and other service industries also play a significant role in the economy.[140]

Although home to only 13% of the DRC's population, Kinshasa accounts for 85% of the Congolese economy as measured by gross domestic product.[95] A 2004 investigation found 70% of inhabitants employed informally, 17% in the public sector, 9% in the formal private sector, and 3% other, of a total 976,000 workers. Most new jobs are classified as informal.[93] By the end of 2022, Kinshasa's foreign exchange reserves had seen a significant improvement, soaring past $4.5 billion. The DRC benefits from support and partnerships with several global organizations and financial institutions, including the IMF, World Bank, African Development Bank, European Union, China and France.[139]

The People's Republic of China has been heavily involved in the Congo since the 1970s, when they financed the construction of the Palais du Peuple and backed the government against rebels in the Shaba war. In 2007–2008 China and Congo signed an agreement for an $8.5 billion loan for infrastructure development.[141] Chinese entrepreneurs are gaining an increasing share of local marketplaces in Kinshasa, displacing in the process formerly successful Congolese, West African, Indian, and Lebanese merchants.[142]

Mean household spending in 2005 was the equivalent of US$2,150, amounting to $1 per day per person. The median household spending was $1,555, 66 cents per person per day. Among the poor, more than half of this spending goes to food, especially bread and cereal.[93]

Education

Park of the University of Kinshasa, below, the Administrative Building

Kinshasa is home to several education institutes, covering a wide range of disciplines, including civil engineering, nursing, and journalism. The city is also home to three large universities and an arts school:

Primary and secondary schools:

The education system in DRC is plagued by low coverage, low quality and poor educational infrastructure, especially in rural areas. According to USAID (2018), 3.5 million children of primary school age are out of school, and 44% of those who do attend school started only after age six. Various statistical estimates by UNESCO, (2013) regarding secondary and tertiary education also reveal the difficulties facing the country. In DRC it is difficult to get a reliable estimate on the actual proportion of the population who can read and write, however, according to data from UIS (2016), the literacy rate of the population of 15 years and older in the country, is estimated to 77.04%. This rate is 88.5% for men and 66.5% for women. There is also a shortage of reading material, and certainly no culture of reading for pleasure.[146]

Health and medicine

Monkole Hospital, Kinshasa

There are twenty hospitals in Kinshasa, plus various medical centers and polyclinics.[147]

Culture

National Museum of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kinshasa
See also: Académie des Beaux-Arts (Kinshasa), Orchestre Symphonique Kimbanguiste, and La Sape

Located in Kinshasa are the National Museum and the Kinshasa Fine Arts Academy.[148]

Kinshasa has a flourishing music scene which, since the 1960s, has operated under the patronage of the city's elite.[80] The Orchestre Symphonique Kimbanguiste, formed in 1994, began using improved musical instruments and has since grown in means and reputation.[149]

A pop culture ideal type in Kinshasa is the mikiliste, a fashionable person with money who has traveled to Europe. Adrien Mombele, a.k.a. Stervos Niarcos, and musician Papa Wemba were early exemplars of the mikiliste style.[80] La Sape, a linked cultural trend also described as dandyism, involves wearing flamboyant clothing.[150]

Many Kinois have a negative view of the city, expressing nostalgia for the rural way of life, and a stronger association with the Congolese nation than with Kinshasa.[151]

Places of worship

Among the places of worship, which are predominantly Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kinshasa (Catholic Church), Kimbanguist Church, Baptist Community of Congo (Baptist World Alliance), Baptist Community of the Congo River (Baptist World Alliance), The Salvation Army, Assemblies of God, Province of the Anglican Church of the Congo (Anglican Communion), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints which has a temple and over 100 congregations in Kinshasa, Presbyterian Community in Congo (World Communion of Reformed Churches).[152] There are also Muslim mosques. A Baha'i House of Worship is in construction.[153] A Jewish synagogue, operated by the Chabad world movement, exists.

Media

See also: List of television stations in Kinshasa
Office of the Agence Congolaise de Presse (ACP)

Kinshasa serves as the nation's principal media hub, hosting the largest concentration of media outlets in the country. The primary languages used in media production are French and Lingala, with other indigenous languages seldom appearing.[154] Press freedom remains limited, with journalism subject to strict control and censorship. The 2023 Press Freedom Index rated the Democratic Republic of the Congo at 48.55%.[155] State-run channels generally provide minimal political content, and restrictive regulations limit investigative journalism. In the early 2000s, especially during the political transition, Kinshasa's media scene grew rapidly. By 2004, the city had 23 radio stations and 26 TV stations, with the number of television broadcasters increasing dramatically to 63 by 2007.[154]

These outlets are primarily commercial, religious, or community-based and are often affiliated—formally or informally—with political figures or parties. For instance, Numerica TV is owned by Kibambi Shintwa and Kabeya Pindi Pasi, both of whom were candidates in the 2006 parliamentary elections. Mirador TV is owned by Michel Ladi Luya, a former Member of Parliament and newspaper publisher.[154][156] Digital Congo TV was co-founded by Croatian businessman Nicolas Vazonne and Jaynet Kabila, twin sister of then-President Joseph Kabila.[154] Africa TV is associated with Azarias Ruberwa, a former vice president and 2006 presidential candidate, and Eugène Serufuli Ngayabaseka, the then-governor of North Kivu. CCTV (Canal Congo Télévision) and Canal Kin are linked to Jean-Pierre Bemba.[154] While many of these channels deny formal political affiliations, their ownership structures suggest otherwise.[154] Not all stations are politically aligned. Neutral and independent outlets such as Antenne A and Congoweb TV contribute to a more balanced media environment. RTNC1 remains the primary public broadcaster with nationwide reach, while other widely viewed stations include RTGA (Radio Télévision Groupe L'Avenir), Digital Congo TV, Mirador TV, Congoweb TV, and Antenne A.[154]

Several prominent national radio and television stations are headquartered in Kinshasa. The RTNC operates multiple channels—RTNC1, RTNC2, RTNC3, and RTNC4—providing news, cultural programming, and public service broadcasts. The UN-supported Radio Okapi, jointly managed with MONUSCO, is also based in the city and is widely regarded for its balanced reporting.[156][157] Other notable broadcasters include Top Congo FM, RTGA, Radio Télévision Message de Vie (RTMV), Raga FM, and Digital Congo FM. In addition to these, Kinshasa hosts a wide array of specialized and religious broadcasters, such as Radio Télévision Armée de l'Éternel (RTAE), Radio Télévision Sentinelle (RTS), Canal Chemin de Vérité et Vie (CVV), Radio Télévision Catholique Elikya (RTCE), Radio Parole de l'Éternel (RPE), and Radio Télé Assemblée Chrétienne (RTACK).[156][158][159][160] Community-based stations include Radio Shaloom Racha, Radio 7, Tam Tam Africain, Jo Dacosta FM, Afri Radio, and Mirador FM. International broadcasters such as the BBC (on 92.6 FM), Radio France Internationale (RFI), Africa Radio, China Radio International, and Euronews are also present and broadcast according to the editorial policies of their parent organizations.[156][154]

The print and digital media sector is equally diverse. The capital is home to the state-owned news agency Agence Congolaise de Presse (ACP) and a range of newspapers and online platforms. Among the most prominent publications are L'Avenir, L'Observateur, Le Potentiel, Le Phare, Le Soft, La Conscience, and LeCongolais.[161]

Sports

The exterior of the Stade des Martyrs, the largest sports venue by capacity in DR Congo

Sports, especially football and martial arts are popular in Kinshasa. The city is home to the country's national stadium, the Stade des Martyrs (Stadium of the Martyrs). The Vita Club, Daring Club Motema Pembe and AS Dragons frequently draws large crowds, enthusiastic and sometimes rowdy, to the Stade des Martyrs. Dojos are popular and their owners influential.[80]

In 1974, Kinshasa hosted The Rumble in the Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman, in which Ali defeated Foreman, to regain the World Heavyweight title.

Buildings and institutions

The People's Palace, seat of the Congolese parliament

Kinshasa is home to the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo including:

The Central Bank of the Congo has its headquarters on Boulevard Colonel Tshatshi, across the street from the Mausoleum of Laurent Kabila and the presidential palace.

Notable features of the city include the Gecamines Commercial Building (formerly SOZACOM) and Hotel Memling; L'ONATRA, the building of the Ministry of Transport; the central market; the Limete Tower.

Infrastructure and housing

Road of Kinshasa City

The city's infrastructure for running water and electricity is generally in bad shape.[162] The electrical network is in disrepair to the extent that prolonged and periodic blackouts are normal, and exposed lines sometimes electrify pools of rainwater.[80][93]

Regideso, the national public company with primary responsibility for water supply in the Congo, serves Kinshasa only incompletely, and without uniform quality. Other areas are served by decentralized Associations des Usagers des Réseau d'Eau Potable (ASUREPs).[110] Gombe uses water at a high rate (306 liters per day per inhabitant) compared to other communes (from 71 L/d/i in Kintambo down to 2 L/d/i in Kimbanseke).[93]

The city is estimated to produce 6,300 m3 of trash and 1,300 m3 of industrial waste per day, with little to no capacity for disposal.[93]

The housing market has seen rising prices and rents since the 1980s. Houses and apartments in the central area are expensive, with houses selling for a million dollars and apartments going for $5000 per month. High prices have spread outward from the central area as owners and renters move out of the most expensive part of the city. Gated communities and shopping malls, built with foreign capital and technical expertise, began to appear in 2006. Urban renewal projects have led in some cases to violent conflict and displacement.[80][163] The high prices leave incoming refugees with few options for settlement besides illegal shantytowns such as Pakadjuma.[112]

In 2005, 55% of households had televisions and 43% had mobile phones. 11% had refrigerators and 5% had cars.[93]

Transport

The Boulevard du 30 Juin provides an artery to the business district in Gombe, Kinshasa.

The city-province has 5000 km of roadways, 10% of which are paved. The Boulevard du 30 Juin (Boulevard of 30 June) links the main areas of the central district of the city. Other roads also converge on Gombe. The east–west road network linking the more distant neighborhoods is weak and thus transit through much of the city is difficult.[93] The quality of roads has improved somewhat, developed in part with loans from China, since 2000.[80]

The public bus company for Kinshasa, created in 2003, is Transco (Transport au Congo).[164]

Several companies operate registered taxis and taxi-buses, identifiable by their yellow color. In addition, an Uber-style, mobile phone, app-based, taxi hailing service was introduced in 2023.[165]

Air

The city has two airports: N'djili Airport (FIH) is the main airport with connections to other African countries as well as to Istanbul, Brussels, Paris and some other destinations. N'Dolo Airport, located close to downtown, is used for domestic flights only with small turboprop aircraft. Several international airlines serve Ndjili Airport including Kenya Airways, South African Airways, Ethiopian Airlines, Brussels Airlines, Air France and Turkish Airlines. An average of ten international flights depart each day from N'djili Airport.[166] A small number of airlines provide domestic service from Kinshasa, for example Congo Airways and CAA. Both offer scheduled flights from Kinshasa to a limited number of cities inside DR Congo.[167]

Rail

See also: Railways in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
A memorial at Kinshasa train station remembering those who died during the construction of the railroad

The Matadi–Kinshasa Railway[168] connects Kinshasa with Matadi, Congo's Atlantic port. The line reopened in September 2015 after around a decade without regular service. There is an intermittent service, with a poor safety record.

According to the Société Commerciale des Transports et des Ports (SCTP), the Matadi-Kinshasa Railway (CFMK) has the highest transport of goods in import, 8 746 tonnes in January, 11,318 tonnes in February 10,032 tonnes in March, 7,244 tonnes in April, 5,024 tonnes in March and 7,745 tonnes in June. The monthly tonnage of exported goods reached only 1,000 tonnes in the month of March 2018. In January some 284 tonnes of goods were exported from the ports of Boma and Matadi, via the railway, and 711 tonnes in February, then 1,058 tonnes in March, 684 tonnes in April, 818 tonnes in May and 853 tonnes in June.

The monthly statistics for passenger traffic are as follows: 2,294 persons in January, 1,836 in February, 2065 in March, 2,660 in April, 1,952 in May and 2,660 in June.

The line connecting the port of Matadi to Kinshasa is 366 km long. Its distance has been since 3111 of 3112 feet or 42 inches (lane capped 1,067 meter): This railway belongs, in fact, to the National Railway Company of the Congo (Société nationale des chemins de fer du Congo; SNCC). It is only exploited by the SCTP, formerly ONATRA, according to an agreement signed by the two companies.

This line lost large shares of the market, following its lamentable state, insecurity on the rails (some trains are attacked), and the rehabilitation of the road along the rails in 2000. According to Congolese sources, an agreement with a Chinese construction company was signed in 2006, according to which this Chinese company will finance the renovation of the track, the rolling stock, the communication channels for the signaling, and the electrical power source. The ex-ONATRA has, in fact, opted for an aggressive commercial policy to revive the rails.

On June 30, 2018, the SCTP received two locomotives and 50 wagons from the African firm ARSS (African-Rolling Stock Solution).

In 2017, some 2.2 million tonnes of cement were produced by the two new start-up companies, PPC Barnet and Kongo Cement Factory (CIMKO). The SCTP did indeed transport part of this production to Kinshasa but the exact quantity was not communicated by the railway department of the company, the former DG Kimbembe Mazunga had communicated an agreed protocol of agreements with the cement manufacturers of Kongo-Central for the transport of their productions.

External transport

Kinshasa is the major river port of the Congo. The port, called 'Le Beach Ngobila' extends for about 7 km (4 mi) along the river, comprising scores of quays and jetties with hundreds of boats and barges tied up. Ferries cross the river to Brazzaville, a distance of about 4 km (2 mi). River transport also connects to dozens of ports upstream, such as Kisangani and Bangui.

There are road and rail links to Matadi, the sea port in the Congo estuary 150 km (93 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean.

There are no rail links from Kinshasa further inland, and road connections to much of the rest of the country are few and in poor condition, although there has been a road built to the city of Kikwit (around 500 km away) that has been in operation since 2015 or so. It was recently extended to the small city of Tshikapa.

Social issues

Downtown Kinshasa at night

Crime and punishment

Since the Second Congo War, the city has been striving to recover from disorder, with many youth gangs living and operating from Kinshasa's poorer areas.[169] The U.S. State Department in 2010 informed travelers that Kinshasa and other major Congolese cities are generally safe for daytime travel, but to beware of robbers, especially in traffic jams and in areas near hotels and stores.[170]

Some sources say that Kinshasa is extremely dangerous, with one source giving a homicide rate of 112 per 100,000 people per year.[171] Another source cites a homicide rate of 12.3 per 100,000.[172] By some accounts, crime in Kinshasa is not so rampant, due to relatively good relations among residents and perhaps to the severity with which even petty crime is punished.[80]

While the military and National Police operate their own jails in Kinshasa, the main detention facility under the jurisdiction of the local courts is the Kinshasa Penitentiary and Re-education center in Makala. This prison houses much more than its nominal capacity of 1,000 inmates. In 2024, the population of Makala Prison was reported at 15,000.[173] The Congolese military intelligence organization, Détection Militaire des Activités Anti-Patrie (DEMIAP) operates the Ouagadougou prison in Kintambo commune with notorious cruelty.[172][174]

Street children

In the 2010s, street children or "Shegués", often orphaned, are subject to abuse by the police and military.[175] Of the estimated 20,000 children living on Kinshasa's streets, almost a quarter are beggars, some are street vendors and about a third have some kind of employment.[176] Some have fled from physically abusive families, notably step-parents, others were expelled from their families as they were believed to be witches,[177] and have become outcasts.[178][179][180]

Street children are mainly boys,[181] but the percentage of girls is increasing according to UNICEF. Ndako ya Biso provides support for street children, including overnight accommodation for girls.[182] There are also second generation street children.[183]

These children have been the object of considerable outside study.[184]

Notable people

Main article: List of people from Kinshasa

International relations

Kinshasa is twinned with:

With its mix of culture, history, and lively atmosphere, Kinshasa has become a focus for filmmakers, musicians, writers, and artists.[187]

Cinematic and TV representations

Foreman trying to punch Ali, October 1974

Kinshasa has been represented in various films, most notably in the film When We Were Kings (1996). This documentary chronicles the historic Rumble in the Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman, held in Kinshasa in 1974. The film showcases the electrifying atmosphere of the city during the momentous event.[188][189][190]

In Viva Riva! (2010), directed by Djo Tunda Wa Munga, the film offers a gritty portrayal of the city's underworld, showing the tension between corruption, ambition, and survival.[191]

Kinshasa's social complexities are explored in Félicité (2017), directed by Alain Gomis. The film explores themes of pliability, community, and the power of music in the face of adversity. The film portrayed the essence of Kinshasa, depicting its vivacious music scene and the struggles faced by its inhabitants with sensitivity and authenticity.[192]

In 2019, The Widow (TV series) was released on Amazon Prime and the UK's ITV network. The mini-series tells the story of a woman searching for her husband in Kinshasa, after believing he'd been killed in a plane crash.[193]

Literary depictions

Throughout history, authors have depicted the essence of Kinshasa in their writing, delving into its diverse cultural fabric, storied past, and the personal narratives of its residents. Fiston Mwanza Mujila's Tram 83 depicts the city's nightlife while exploring themes of postcolonial identity and the struggle for social and economic progress.[194] Meanwhile, In Koli Jean Bofane's novel Congo Inc.: Bismarck's Testament the city serves as a microcosm of post-colonial Congo, exploring themes of globalization, political corruption, and environmental degradation.[195]

Music and dance

See also: Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ndombolo, and Congolese rumba
Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa performing in Kinshasa, in 1971

The music scene of Kinshasa has also made a significant impact on popular culture. Congolese rumba, a genre born in the city during the 1930s, continues to resonate globally. Artists like Franco Luambo Makiadi, Syran Mbenza, Le Grand Kallé, Nico Kasanda, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Madilu System, Papa Noël Nedule, Vicky Longomba, Awilo Longomba, Pépé Kallé, Kanda Bongo Man, Nyboma Mwan'dido, General Defao, Papa Wemba, Koffi Olomide, Werrason, Abeti Masikini, Lokua Kanza, Fally Ipupa, and Ferré Gola have played a key role in popularizing Congolese music on the international stage, infusing their compositions with Kinshasa's pulsating rhythms and infectious energy. The infectious beats of Congolese music have influenced artists across continents, shaping genres like soukous and influencing international musicians such as Paul Simon and Vampire Weekend.[196][197][198][199]

The city itself has been repeatedly immortalized in song. Tabu Ley Rochereau's 1971 track "Kinshasa" and Franco's 1980 composition "Kinshasa mboka ya makambo" ("Kinshasa, city of problems") reflect both pride and criticism, capturing the spirit and struggles of urban life.[200] Cameroonian jazz saxophonist Manu Dibango echoed these themes in his nostalgic 1960s track "Twist à Léo", depicting the city's youth dancing to global rhythms during the twilight of the colonial era.[200] In the aftermath of the 1990s conflicts, Kinshasa's music scene underwent a period of transformation. While many musicians shifted toward Christian gospel, others sought to reconnect with indigenous roots. The "tradi-modern" movement, spearheaded by acts such as Swédé Swédé and supported by Belgian producer Vincent Kenis, captured global attention with its raw, electrified sound.[200] This led to the acclaimed Congotronics album series, which introduced international audiences to groups like Konono Nº1, Kasai Allstars, Staff Benda Bilili, and Mbongwana Star, who performed using handmade instruments and rudimentary amplification.[200]

Jupiter Bokondji and his band Okwess International at Rudolstadt-Festival in 2017

Contemporary projects have continued to build on this momentum. In 2011, the DRC Music collective—curated by Damon Albarn—recorded the collaborative album Kinshasa One Two in just five days, bringing together over fifty Congolese musicians and international producers to celebrate the city's eclectic musical creativity.[200] Among the featured artists was Jupiter Bokondji, whose band Okwess International has championed bofenia rock, a genre drawing from Congo's immense ethnic and musical diversity. His albums, such as Hotel Univers and Kin Sonic, incorporate Congolese rhythms, Western rock influences, and multilingual lyrics.[200][201][202] The city has also become a site for international artistic exchange. Since 2009, the Royal Flemish Theatre in Brussels has organized the Connexion Kin arts festival in the Limete commune, fostering collaborations between Kinshasa artists and European counterparts.[200] A notable product of this initiative was the acclaimed 2014 performance Coup Fatal, which combined Congolese guitar with classical opera, jazz, and contemporary choreography, earning praise at the Avignon Festival and in Brussels.[200]

Rapper and singer Baloji, born in Lubumbashi and raised in Belgium, returned to Kinshasa to record his 2011 album Kinshasa Succursale. Blending Congolese rumba, hip-hop, funk, and experimental sounds, Baloji's work reflects a diasporic reconnection with Kinshasa's musical traditions while infusing them with modern, global sensibilities.[200]

Visual arts and fashion

Kinshasa's street art scene has gained recognition globally, with talented artists using their creations to express social and political messages. Murals and graffiti, adorned with colorful imagery, can be found throughout the city.[203][204][205]

La Sape

Main article: La Sape
A traditional sapeur dressed in an outfit made from pearls in kinshasa, February 2015

The La Sape subculture, characterized by extravagant and dapper fashion choices, has become an emblem of style, self-expression, and identity for the sapeurs of Kinshasa. It has gained international recognition through the lens of well-known photographers such as Daniele Tamagni. Tamagni's book Gentlemen of Bacongo (2009) showcases the impeccable style and distinct personalities of Kinshasa's sapeurs, accentuating their taste in tailored suits, bold hues, and eye-catching accessories.[206][207] The city serves as the epicenter of La Sape, with various neighborhoods, communes and districts hosting events like le concours or la fête where sapeurs can display their style. La Sape has also inspired popular music and cultural expressions in Kinshasa, with sapeurs often featured in Congolese music videos as symbols of refinement and sophistication. Musicians such as Papa Wemba have embraced La Sape as an essential part of their artistic identity.[206][208][209]

Martial arts

WWE wrestler Shinsuke Nakamura uses a running knee strike, called the Kinshasa, as his finisher, a reference to the eponymous city. The move was previously named as Bomaye (which translated to "kill him") during his time in New Japan Pro Wrestling but was renamed in 2016 when he was signed with the WWE for trademark reasons.[210] Both Bomaye and Kinshasa are homages to Nakamura's mentor, Antonio Inoki, who received Bomaye as a nickname from Muhammad Ali when Inoki and Ali fought in 1976, with Ali first hearing Bomaye in Kinshasa during the Rumble In The Jungle.[210]

See also

Films about Kinshasa

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