Opening the Port of Hyōgo

On July 29, 1858, the Tokugawa shogunate entered into the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States. In Article 6 of that treaty, the shogunate acknowledged the consular jurisdiction of the U.S. in Japan. In Article 3 it opened Hyōgo port as a treaty port from January 1, 1863, agreeing to establish a fixed area (foreign settlement) to be loaned to foreigners to reside and conduct economic activity in. Before long, the shogunate signed similar treaties known as the Ansei Treaties with the Netherlands, Russia, the United Kingdom, and France.^[7] However, these treaties were unable to gain the approval of an imperial edict, and after negotiations with the foreign powers the opening of the port was delayed for five years, until January 1, 1868.^[8] The court expressed disapproval for the opening of a port so close to the imperial palace in Kyoto,^[9] and even after the Ansei Treaties were approved by imperial edict on December 22, 1865, approval for the port was still not granted.^[10] On June 26, 1867, when the treaty port's scheduled opening was six months away, an imperial edict finally acknowledged its establishment.^{[11][12][† 1]}

Even before the issuance of this sanction, the shogunate had been conducting negotiations with the various foreign powers on the topic of the treaty port, and on May 16, 1867, it concluded an agreement^{[† 2]} for the establishment of foreign settlements in Hyōgo and Osaka with Britain, the U.S., and France.^[14] Article 1 of this agreement established that "a foreign settlement will be established in Hyōgo, between Kōbe-machi (Kōbe-mura) and the Ikuta River, for residents of those countries which have such treaties with the Japanese government ..."^{[† 3][1][15]} Thus, the foreign settlement was created at Kōbe-mura (神戸村), about 3.5 km east of the Port of Hyōgo.^[1] In accordance with this, a new harbor was constructed on the coast at Kōbe-mura and opened to the foreign powers.^[1] In 1892, an imperial edict named this harbor the Port of Kobe (神戸港, Kōbe-kō).^[16]

Existing documents do not record the reason or chain of events surrounding the opening of the Port of Kobe instead of the Port of Hyōgo.^[1] Still, there are a number of theories. In Kokusai Toshi Kōbe no Keifu, Toshio Kusumoto guesses that the shogunate, mindful of the population's preference to keep foreigners at a distance^{[† 4]} and wishing to avoid conflict, wanted to avoid opening the already bustling and prosperous port of Hyōgo.^{[† 5][18][† 6]} Meanwhile, Shinshū Kōbe Shishi: Rekishi-hen 3 and Kokusai Toshi Kōbe no Keifu both conjecture that it was easier to secure a site in the less densely populated area around Kōbe-mura,^{[† 7]} and this site also allowed the reappropriation of the Kobe Naval Training Center, which had shut down in 1865.^[1] A November 1865 survey of the surrounding ocean by an attendant of the British envoy Harry Smith Parkes indicated that the area intended for the foreign settlement, somewhat removed from the old Hyōgo town center, looked out on a small bay that was sufficiently deep and provided an anchorage abundant in nature. Kokusai Toshi Kōbe no Keifu posits from this that this site was Kōbe-mura, and that the foreign powers also found this location more suitable than the existing port of Hyōgo.^[21] In any case, in 1892, the port of Kobe was expanded to incorporate the old port of Hyōgo.^[22][23]

The final site of the foreign settlement was located within Kōbe-mura and framed by the Ikuta River to the east, Koi River to the west, and Pacific Ocean to the south, with the Saigoku Kaidō highway to the north.^{[† 8][2][27]} It had an area of 78,000 tsubo^[3] (about 0.26 km²). Shinshū Kōbe Shishi describes this selection as suggestive of the shogunate's consideration in minimizing contact between foreigners and Japanese to its utmost ability.^{[† 9][28]}

Construction and administration

The Tokugawa shogunate dispatched Shibata Takenaka as magistrate of Hyōgo, putting him in charge of the creation of port and foreign settlement. Shibata immediately took over this task on his arrival in Kōbe-mura, but by January 1, 1868, when the port was to open, all that was complete was the Customs office, three wharfs, and three storehouses.^[29][30] This was also the period during which the government transitioned from the shogunate to the Meiji government, and on November 9, 1867, Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu officially tendered his resignation to the emperor. At first, business related to the port was left to the shogunate government,^[31] but on January 3, two days after the port opened, the shogunate was completely abolished and power returned to the emperor. After the shogunate forces lost the Battle of Toba–Fushimi at the end of that January, Yoshinobu retreated from Osaka Castle to Edo, and with Shibata recalled to Edo as well, the construction had to be suspended.^[32][33] The remainder of the construction was carried out under the Meiji government,^[34][35] and around 1872 the building of roads and drains was finished, completing the 8-by-5 grid of streets that defined the area of the settlement.^[36]

The Meiji government, which was unwilling to allow foreigners to own land, classified the area instead as under perpetual lease,^[37] and the leaseholders were decided by auction.^{[† 10][40][43]} The perpetual lease continued even after the return of the settlement to Japan, until 1942 (see below). About half of the profits from the auction were absorbed by the government, while the remainder was accumulated for operating expenses by the Municipal Council (居留地会議, Kyoryūchi Kaigi),^[43] which the government acknowledged as the highest deciding body in the settlement's government.^[44] The self-government of the settlement by its residents continued until the foreign settlement was abolished.^[45] The settlement enjoyed 30 years of smooth operation, and relations were generally good between the foreign and Japanese sides.^[5] However, it was forbidden for Japanese to live within the foreign settlement,^[46] and their entrance to it was also restricted.^[47]

In response to the delay in the settlement's construction, the Meiji government allowed foreigners to live outside of the settlement in the area between the Ikuta River to the east, the Uji River to the west, the southern shore of the foreign settlement to the south, and the mountains to the north.^[48][49] This area was referred to as the mixed residential zone (雑居地, zakkyochi), and also existed until the abolishment of the settlement (see below).^[50]

Development of the settlement and it surroundings

After the opening of the port, the settlement was outfitted according to a logical urban plan,^[4] with the roads and drains complete around 1872,^[36] and bidding on the land lease over by February 7, 1873.^[38][39] The settlement's urban planning led to its evaluation as the "best-planned foreign settlement in the Orient" (by an April 17, 1871, article in the English-language newspaper The Far East).^[4] Even so, its surroundings were by no means the object of planned development. The foreign settlement sprouted factories run by foreigners to its northeast, companies and banks to its west, and a Chinatown to its northwest, but as the population in the area near the foreign settlement increased in proportion to its development, a disorderly jumble emerged around it.^[51] The scale of the town area increased until in 1890 it connected with the town around the Port of Hyōgo.^[52] At the time of the foreign settlement's establishment, the population of Kōbe-mura had been around 3,600 people, but in 1889, when Kōbe-mura was merged with its surroundings to become Kōbe-shi (Kobe City), the new municipality had a population of about 134,700 people.^[53] Furthermore, the population of the foreign settlement itself had increased from around 400 English, Germans, French, Dutch, and Ming citizens in 1871 to more than 2,000 in 1890 (see below).

The port possessed meager facilities at first, resembling a natural coastline,^[54][55] but its outfitting continued as well. From April to July 1868, four new wharfs were built between the Ikuta and Uji rivers,^[51] and construction was carried out between 1871 and 1872 on breakwaters and expanding the wharves.^[54] From April 29 to July 26, 1871, further construction redirected the Ikuta River—not only to prevent the flooding of the settlement, but also to stop the flow of sediment into the middle of the harbor. These actions laid the foundations for the Port of Kobe's later reputation as a good natural harbor.^[56] The first round of major restorations that led to its position as Japan's foremost international trade port were decided in 1907, after the foreign settlement's return, and work began in 1908.^[57]

Return

Aiming to amend the terms of the unequal Ansei Treaties formed by the shogunate, the Meiji government embarked on a plan of Westernization. One part of this plan involved holding balls at the Rokumeikan in Tokyo, and Kobe also held its own. In 1887, a ball organized by the governors of Osaka and Hyōgo prefecture, and called "Kobe's Biggest Evening Party Ever" (神戸未曾有の大夜会), took place in a gymnasium owned by the Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club (KRAC).^{[58][† 11]}

In 1894, the Meiji government concluded the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation with the United Kingdom, realizing its goal of repealing consular jurisdiction and reclaiming the foreign settlements. The government proceeded to conclude treaties to the same effect with 14 more countries, including the U.S. and France. These treaties took effect on July 17, 1899, and on this date the Kobe foreign settlement was returned to Japanese hands.^[60][61] The settlement was incorporated into Kobe City, and its administrative and financial autonomy was canceled. Japanese were allowed to enter freely and to reside within the area. The settlement's internal police force, which had been organized by the Municipal Council, was abolished, and its fire brigade, which had been organized directly be residents, was transferred to the control of the city as a regular fire brigade.^[62] The government of the settlement was transferred from the highest office within the Municipal Council, the head of the Executive Committee (行事局, gyōji-kyoku) (see below), to commissioned members of the prefectural and city governments. On the old site of the office, a local police station was built, and a committee called the Consultation Committee (相談委員会) (later the Kobe International Committee (神戸国際委員会と改称))^{[† 12]} was allowed to be established by the foreigners to help prevent disputes arising from the loss of extraterritoriality. In these ways, the government showed some consideration for the foreigners as well.^[64]

Disputes over the perpetual lease

As discussed above, the Meiji government was unwilling to allow foreigners to own land, and instead lent it to them on a perpetual lease.^[37] These leases continued even after the return of the settlement to Japan,^{[† 13]} but Japan began a policy of taxing the buildings on the land.^{[† 14]} The foreigners were opposed to this on the grounds that they were already being taxed on the land itself, and so were being subjected to double taxation, and in 1902 the Japanese government presented the case to the Permanent Court of Arbitration. In 1905, Japan's plea was discarded, and Japan was disallowed from levying any taxes on buildings on the land under perpetual lease.^[66][67][68]

With taxation impossible, the Kobe city government moved beginning in 1933 to repeal the perpetual leases. In September 1936, it began conferencing with Yokohama and Nagasaki, which faced similar issues, and the three cities negotiated together with the foreign countries. In March 1937, an agreement was reached to exchange the leases on April 1, 1942, for the rights to the land, in exchange for which the land would be exempt from taxation for five years after the exchange.^[69][70][71]

Though the settlement was officially returned to Japan by treaty on July 17, 1899, the settlement's history is considered to have continued until its full annulment on April 1, 1942.^[72][73]

After the return

From the Taishō era until the early Shōwa era, many Japanese firms and banks advanced into the former foreign settlement, which developed as a business district.^[74] Meanwhile, foreign trading companies declined around the time of the First World War.^[74][75] Real estate owned by Germans in particular, whose country opposed Japan in the war, was forcibly sold to Japanese, and German firms within the former settlement were succeeded by Japanese ones.^[76] By 1931, only 47 of 126 lots in the former foreign settlement were still under perpetual lease to foreigners.^[77]

The Bombing of Kobe in World War II resulted in the destruction of 70% of the lots by June 1945, and their restoration did not progress well even after the war ended.^[78][79] In the late 1950s and early 1960s, many companies moved their bases to Tokyo, and the city center of Kobe moved east, deteriorating the former settlement's economic position.^[79] But in the late 1970s, the modern Western style architecture and historical scenery of the area led to its reappraisal.^{[† 15]} New shops opened that incorporated these factors,^[78] and the former foreign settlement became active once more as both a business and shopping district.^[79]

Problems around self-governance and extraterritoriality

Gas lamps

In November 1874, Brown and Co.—a predecessor of Osaka Gas, established with the investment of many of the firms in the settlement—began supplying gas to the settlement, the first area in Hyōgo to receive it.^{[† 21]} Gas lamps were set up inside the settlement to replace the previous oil lamps.^[107] Of the 94 gas lamps from the period, two are in front of the former Hassam residence [ja], while another is at the Meiji-mura museum and theme park. Reconstructions are also placed around the Kobe City Museum and the Kobe branch of the Daimaru department store chain.^[109]

Electricity became available in Kobe from November 1888, and electric lamps were put up around the city, but there was opposition within the foreign settlement, mainly from Brown and Co. This delayed the introduction of both electricity supply and electric lamps to the settlement. Additionally, the foreign residents insisted that elevated power cables would ruin the beauty of the town, and had the lines in the settlement laid underground. Even after the return of the settlement to Japan, these wires remained underground, and utility poles were never erected in the area.^[109]

Architectural style

The first buildings erected in the settlement were tinged with the classical style.^[110] The former American consulate in Kobe [ja] at No. 15 was an exemplar of this style, with two floors and a veranda adorned with columns on the second floor.^[111] Until the mid-19th century, the classical style was overwhelmingly predominant in the foreign settlements of East Asia.^[112]

In the 1890s, the English architect Alexander Nelson Hansell's activity brought change to the current fad.^[113] Hansell, influenced by Gothic Revival architecture, favored designs that featured exposed brick.^[114] Beginning with the rebuilding of the Kobe Club [ja] in the foreign settlement, Hansell worked on the designs of a great number of buildings, including branches of HSBC and Jardine Matheson, as well as the German consulate.^[115]

Unlike the Yokohama settlement, which was populated by many examples of faux-Western Giyōfū architecture,^[52] all of the buildings in the Kobe settlement were constructed under the direction of Western architects,^[116] and most of the clients who ordered construction were foreign-owned enterprises.^[117] Meanwhile, from the early 1900s on, many of the architects employed by Japanese government administrations and business in Kobe were Japanese. These included graduates of the Imperial College of Engineering, like Tatsuno Kingo, Sone Tatsuzō, and Kawai Kōzō [ja], as well as Yamaguchi Hanroku [ja], who studied architecture abroad in France at the École Centrale Paris.^[118] Architects like these, who studied under the Englishman Josiah Conder at the Imperial College like Tatsuno,^{[† 22]} or overseas like Yamaguchi, laid the development for the advancement of architecture in Japan during the Meiji period.^[119] However, these Japanese architects employed in Kobe at large and the foreign ones employed in the foreign settlement were clearly demarcated by their different client groups, and interaction between them was sparse.^[120]

Lodging

The first hospitality facility in the Kobe foreign settlement was the Global Hotel, which opened in 1868, though its location and the date of its closure are unknown. Various other facilities followed.^[121] The most famous among these was the Oriental Hotel, which opened sometime before August 3, 1870, in Lot 79.^[122] The Oriental Hotel was home to the office of the social Union Club from 1870 until around 1881, when Club Concordia took over the space,^[123] and on September 23, 1870, the KRAC's founding meeting was held there.^[124] The Oriental Hotel purchased Lot 80 in 1888 and moved its main building there, and at this time enjoyed critical acclaim for the culinary efforts of its French chef Louis Begeux.^[125] After the settlement's return, the Oriental Hotel's operation continued unbroken despite its relocation. It was destroyed by the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995 but reopened in 2010.^[126]

Construction on the neighboring rivers

The two rivers that bordered the settlement on its initial construction were both problematic. The Ikuta River to the east had low banks and frequently flooded the settlement,^[127] while the Koi River to the west was hated as an obstruction to traffic.^[128]

The Meiji government conducted construction on the Ikuta River from April 9 to July 26, 1871, to redirect the flow of the river eastward, creating a straight new Ikuta River that flowed directly south from the Nunobiki Falls upstream to Onohama-chō in Kobe.^[127] The old riverbed was built over and the street called Flower Road was built atop it,^[103] alongside a park shared by foreigners and Japanese that later became Higashi Yūenchi park.^[129] Some of the bank was left as hill, on which Kobe City Hall [ja] was later built.^[130] One portion of the reclaimed land was called Kanō-chō, in honor of the late Edo and Meiji-period merchant Kanō Sōshichi [ja].^[103] The British engineer and architect John William Hart [ja], who had been involved with the construction of the settlement, was also involved with the remodeling of the river.^[131]

In the case of the Koi River, the settlement's foreign residents appealed to Hyōgo prefecture and the central government to cover the river, offering to pay half of the construction costs involved. The construction was carried out from October 1874 to January 1875. In 1909, the river was completely covered with concrete, becoming a culvert. Later, a road called Koikawa-suji was laid atop it.^[128]

Mixed residential zone

The initial opening of the port on January 1, 1868, only established a tiny area of land and facilities. The Meiji government had publicly inherited the treaties and agreements concluded by the shogunate,^[132] but in the May 16, 1867, agreement,^{[† 2]} the shogunate had agreed that in the event that the settlement became too cramped, it would either expand the area of the settlement or allow Japanese people to rent residences to foreigners.^[49] Therefore, the Meiji government from March 30, 1868, allowed foreigners to reside in the area between the Ikuta River to the east, the Uji river to the west, the coast to the south, and the mountains to the north. Within this area, foreigners could lease land and lease or purchase houses.^[48][49] This area was known as the mixed residential zone (雑居地, zakkyochi). After the very early days of the zone's existence, it was not allowed to grant perpetual leases on land within this zone to foreigners. Leases were limited initially to five-year intervals, which was later expanded to 25 years.^[133] The mixed residential zone was set up on a temporary basis to compensate for the late opening of the settlement, but even after the settlement's completion, its foreign residents soon overwhelmed its internal capacity. Fearing that it would be asked to expand the settlement if the mixed residential zone were removed, the Meiji government left the zone intact until the abolishment of the settlement.^[50] As of the end of 1885, the mixed residential zone had an area of 26,756 tsubo (about 8.8 hectares).^[134]

As Qing China had no treaty with Japan at the time of the port's opening, its citizens were unable to reside within the settlement and were limited to the mixed residential zone.^[135] This led to the development of a Chinatown to the west of the foreign settlement.^[51] After the signing of the Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty on September 13, 1871, they were able to reside within the settlement, and the number of Chinese residents in both the mixed zone and the settlement itself increased.^[136] These Chinese acted as neutral parties called baiben (買弁) in trade conducted by the settlement's foreign firms.^[137][138] They also used their channels to China to play a major role in the export of matches to both countries.^[139]

Many old foreign residences, called ijinkan [ja], remain as popular tourist attractions in the old mixed residential zone.^[140] The existing Kobe Chinatown, Nankinmachi, is in the area west of the foreign settlement where the Qing Chinatown first developed.^[141][142] In the mixed residential zone, foreigners and Japanese lived side by side, producing international exchange on the level of daily life. Kobe's current status as a city where multiple ethnicities and cultures coexist arose from this relationship.^[143]

Treaty limits

The Ansei Treaties included stipulations restricting the area of activity open to foreign residents, and in Kobe this consisted of an area of ten ri (about 40 km) around the Hyōgo prefectural office. In 1869, the prefecture released regulations concretely defining this 10-ri area in terms of actual travel distance, bounded by the sea to the south and by villages on all sides: to the east by Ōbe, Sakane, Hirai, and Nakashima in Kawabe District, the west by Sone and Amida in Innami District [ja], and the north by Ōharano-mura in Kawabe District, Kawahara, Yado, Yakamishimo, and Inugai in Taki District [ja], and Takō, Myōrakuji, and Yokō in Taka District. However, the foreign countries instead interpreted the ten ri as a radius of direct distance, expanding the treaty limits to encompass the entirety of Innami to the west and Kawabe, Taki, and Taka districts to the north.^[144][145] The space beyond this area was accessible to foreigners only for recreation and scholarship, and when foreigners did enter it they were obligated to carry a travel license from the prefectural office. In actuality, though, foreigners often left the treaty area without permission on excursions, which frequently caused trouble for the prefecture.^{[146][147][148]} When the settlement was returned in 1899, foreigners were permitted to reside and travel freely within Japan.^[149]

Food

Christianity

The Meiji government continued the shogunate's prohibition on Christianity until February 24, 1873. However, the Ansei Treaties guaranteed freedom of religion for foreigners, and religious activity by missionaries within the foreign settlement was energetic from its inception.^[178]

On August 9, 1868, the missionary Pierre Mounicou [ja] of the Paris Foreign Missions Society began holding weekly Catholic services every Sunday at a temporary place of worship on the Saigoku Kaidō.^[179] In March of the next year he built a rectory on Lot 37 and moved the services there.^[180] However, as many of foreign residents were Protestant, attendance was not remarkably high.^[181] Mounicou continued on, building a chapel on Lot 37, and the church was consecrated on April 17, 1870.^[182] In 1923, the church was relocated to Nakayamate-dōri 1-chōme,^[183] becoming one of the roots of the Kobe Central Catholic Church.^[184]

On May 22, 1870, Daniel Crosby Greene of the American Board began holding Protestant services on Lot 18.^[185][186] Greene constructed a church on Lot 48, which was completed in 1872 and named the Union Church.^[187] In 1928, the church moved to Fukiai-ku Ikuta-chō 4-chōme,^[188] and then to Nada-Ku, Kobe Nagaminedai 2-chōme in 1992^[189]

The first Anglican services in the settlement were held in 1873. From 1876 to 1898, the Protestant Union Church also hosted Anglican services.^[190] In 1898, All Saints Church completed construction at Shitayamate-dōri 3-chōme, and Anglican services were conducted there from then on.^[190] All Saints Church burned down during the Second World War and was never rebuilt.^[191]

Music

A variety of musical activities took place on the street by the sea, in Naigaijin Park, the Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club gymnasium, and in Nishimachi Park.^{[† 26]} Most of these activities were concerts, dances, and performances at sporting events. They were held by military bands from the various countries, as well as by private bands and professional or amateur musicians.^[192] KRAC held between one and three performances per year, featuring both concerts and theatrical plays, to cover its management expenses.^[193]

Sports

Foreign newspapers

The first foreign-language newspaper published in the Kobe foreign settlement was the Hiogo and Osaka Herald, launched by A. T. Watkins, which released its first issue on January 4, 1868.^[223] On April 23 of that year the Herald's typesetter Filomena Braga left the paper to start his own paper, the Hiogo News.^[224] After a few years the Herald, undercut by the News's lower subscription price, discontinued its publication.^[224]

In 1888 A. W. Quinton established the Kobe Herald,^[225][226] and on October 2, 1891, Robert Young started the Kobe Chronicle.^[227][228] The Chronicle occasionally ran editorials by Lafcadio Hearn.^[229][230] After the return of the settlement in 1899, the Kobe Chronicle purchased the Hiogo News (which had been renamed to the Hiogo Evening News), changed its company name to the Japan Chronicle, and expanded beyond Kobe, growing until it recorded the largest number of copies printed of any foreign-language newspaper in the country.^[231]

The Kobe Herald changed its name in 1926 to the Kobe Herald and Osaka Gazette, but ceased publication shortly thereafter.^[226] The Japan Chronicle ceased publication in January 1942.^[232]

Social clubs

There were two social clubs within the Kobe foreign settlement. The first, Club Concordia, was founded by resident Germans in 1868. The club only intended to admit Germans, but to cover the costs of their clubhouse on the eastern end of the settlement they began to accept others as well, including Dutch, Norwegians, and Swedes.^[233][234] The Union Club, also called the International Club and later the Kobe Club [ja], was founded in 1869 by British and Americans, but also accepted others including French and Italians. The club moved its base repeatedly between various buildings within the foreign settlement, from Lot 31 to Lot 32 and then to the basement of the Oriental Hotel^[124] in Lot 79.^[233][235] After the establishment of the German Empire, Club Concordia's German and non-German members became antagonistic, and many of the non-German members left. Troubled for funds, Club Concordia sold its facilities to the Union Club,^[236] and around 1881^[237] moved into the Union Club's previous space in the basement of the Oriental Hotel on Lot 79.^[236] The two clubs were friendly until the outbreak of the First World War, and when the Oriental Hotel burned down in 1890 the Union Club allowed Club Concordia to share their facilities.^[238] The Union Club (Kobe Club) continued to be active even after the return of the settlement.^[239][240]

Kantei-byō

To ethnic Chinese, Kantei-byō represented a place to pray for prosperity both in business and in the household,^[241] and was a place of spiritual support.^[242] Qing Chinese immigrants built two Kantei-byō temples in the mixed residential zone. One was built at Nakayamate-dōri 7-chōme in 1888 by the powerful local Chinese Lán Zhuōfēng, Zhèng Wàngāo, and Mài Shǎopéng, under the auspices of relocating the derelict Jigan-san Chōraku-ji temple from Fuse-mura, Kawachi-gun, Osaka.^[243] Chōraku-ji had originally been dedicated to the worship of Eleven-Faced Kannon, but primarily Chinese objects of worship like Guan Di and Tianhou Shengmu were also added along with the move.^[244] This Kantei-byō was destroyed in June 1945 by Allied bombs, but was rebuilt in 1947 and equipped with a statue of Guan Di imported from Taiwan.^[245] The other Kantei-byō was likewise built in 1888, in Kano-chō 2-chōme, and likewise destroyed in the June 1945 bombing, but unlike the first it was never rebuilt.^[246] The Zhonghua Huiguan located in Nakatamate-dōri 6-chōme^{[† 29]} also enshrined a statue of Guan Di, and was therefore also referred to as Kantei-byō.^[248]

The rebuilt Kantei-byō holds an event (suiriku fudo shōe (水陸普度勝会)) during the Ghost Festival from the 14th to the 16th day of the 7th month of the lunar calendar each year. In October 1997, this festival was designated Municipal Intangible Folk Cultural Property No. 1 of Kobe City.^[249]

Foreign population

The population of foreign residents in both the foreign settlement and mixed residential zone was as follows.^[260]

Important foreign residents

Foreign cemetery

A cemetery for foreign residents was first provided by the Tokugawa shogunate at Onohama Shinden (now Kobe City, Chūo-ku, Hamabe-dōri, 6-chōme)^{[† 35][321]} The cemetery was managed by the Executive Committee of the Municipal Council, and by the city of Kobe after the return of the settlement.^[321]

In 1899, after the return of the settlement, Kobe City established an additional cemetery at Kasugano, Fukiai-mura (now Nada-ku Kagoike-dōri 4-chōme) because the original had filled up.^[321] In time, though, this cemetery became saturated as well, and the city began building yet another at Mt. Futatabi in Chūō-ku. This new graveyard, Kobe Municipal Foreign Cemetery [ja], was completed in 1952 after construction was interrupted during World War II. All the graves at Onohama were moved to the new location in the same year, and in 1961 those at Kasugano were relocated there as well.^[321]