List_of_heads_of_state_of_France
Monarchs ruled the Kingdom of France from the establishment of Francia in 509 to 1870, except for certain periods from 1792 to 1852. Since 1870, the head of state has been the President of France. Below is a list of all French heads of state. It includes the kings of the Franks, the monarchs of the Kingdom of France, emperors of the First and Second Empire and leaders of the five Republics.
Main article: Carolingian dynasty
The Carolingians were a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The family consolidated its power in the 8th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary and becoming the real powers behind the Merovingian kings. The dynasty is named after one of these mayors of the palace, Charles Martel, whose son Pepin the Short dethroned the Merovingians in 751 and, with the consent of the Papacy and the aristocracy, was crowned King of the Franks.[1] Under Charles the Great (r. 768–814), better known as "Charlemagne", the Frankish kingdom expanded deep into Central Europe, conquering Italy and most of modern Germany. He was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), who eventually divided the kingdom between his sons. His death, however, was followed by a 3-year-long civil war that ended with the Treaty of Verdun. Modern France developed from West Francia, while East Francia became the Holy Roman Empire and later Germany.
Louis the Pious made many divisions of the Carolingian Empire during his lifetime. The final division, pronounced at Worms in 838, made Charles the Bald heir to the west, including Aquitaine, and Lothair heir to the east, including Italy and excluding Bavaria, which was left for Louis the German. However, following the emperor's death in 840, the empire was plunged into a civil war that lasted three years. The Frankish kingdom was then divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Lothair was allowed to keep his imperial title and his kingdom of Italy, and granted the Middle Francia, a corridor of land stretching from Italy to the North Sea, and including the Low Countries, the Rhineland (including Aachen), Burgundy, and Provence. Charles was confirmed in Aquitaine, where Pepin I's son Pepin II was opposing him, and granted West Francia (modern France), the lands west of Lothair's Kingdom. Louis the German was confirmed in Bavaria and granted East Francia (modern Germany), the lands east of Lothair's kingdom.
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
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Charles II "the Bald"[lower-alpha 1] |
c. 10 August 843[lower-roman 1] – 6 October 877 (34 years and 2 months) |
Son of Louis the Pious and grandson of Charlemagne; recognized as king after the Treaty of Verdun | 13 June 823[lower-alpha 2] – 6 October 877 (aged 54) King of Aquitaine since 838. Crowned "Emperor of the Romans" on Christmas 875. Died of natural causes[4] |
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Louis II "the Stammerer"[lower-alpha 3] |
6 October 877[lower-roman 2] – 10 April 879 (1 year, 6 months and 4 days) |
Son of Charles the Bald | 1 November 846 – 10 April 879 (aged 32) King of Aquitaine since 867. Died of natural causes.[6] |
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Louis III | 10 April 879[lower-roman 3] – 5 August 882 (3 years, 3 months and 26 days) |
Son of Louis the Stammerer | 863 – 5 August 882[lower-alpha 4] (aged 19) Ruled the North; died after hitting his head with a lintel while riding his horse.[12] |
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Carloman II | 10 April 879[lower-roman 4] – 6 December 884 (5 years, 7 months and 26 days) |
Son of Louis the Stammerer | 866 – 6 December 884[lower-alpha 5] (aged 18) Ruled the South; died after being accidentally stabbed by his servant.[16] |
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Charles (III) "the Fat"[lower-alpha 6] |
6 December 884[lower-roman 5] – 11 November 887[lower-alpha 7] (2 years, 11 months and 5 days) |
Son of Louis II the German, king of East Francia, and grandson of Louis I | 839[lower-alpha 8] – 13 January 888 (aged 48–49) King of East Francia since 876; crowned Emperor in 881. Last ruler to control all Frankish territories. Deposed by the nobility, later dying of natural causes[22] |
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Main article: Robertians
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odo Eudes or Odon |
29 February 888[lower-roman 6] – 3 January 898 (9 years, 10 months and 15 days) |
Son of Robert the Strong; elected king by the French nobles following the deposition of Charles. Initially rivaled by Guy III of Spoleto and Ranulf II of Aquitaine | c. 858 – 3 January 898[lower-alpha 9] (aged approx. 40) Defended Paris from the Vikings; died of natural causes[27] |
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Charles III "the Simple" | 3 January 898[lower-roman 7] – 29 June 922 (24 years, 5 months and 26 days) |
Posthumous son of Louis II the Stammerer; proclaimed king in opposition to Odo in January 893 | 17 September 879 – 7 October 929 (aged 50) Deposed by Robert's followers; later captured by Herbert II, Count of Vermandois. Died in captivity[28] |
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Robert I | 29 June 922[lower-roman 8]– 15 June 923 (11 months and 17 days) |
Son of Robert the Strong and younger brother of Odo | 865 – 15 June 923 (aged 58) Killed at the Battle of Soissons against Charles III. Sole king to die in battle[30] |
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Main article: Bosonids
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rudolph Rodolphe or Raoul |
15 June 923[lower-roman 9]– 14 January 936 (12 years, 6 months and 30 days) |
Son of Richard, Duke of Burgundy and son-in-law of Robert I | Duke of Burgundy since 921. Died of illness after a reign of constant civil war and viking raids. Lost Lotharingia (Lorraine) to Henry I of Germany[31] |
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis IV "from Overseas" | 19 June 936[lower-roman 10] – 10 September 954 (18 years, 2 months and 22 days) |
Son of Charles the Simple, recalled to France after being exiled to England | 921 – 10 September 954 (aged 33) Died after falling off his horse[32] | |
| Lothair Lothaire |
10 September 954[lower-roman 11] – 2 March 986 (31 years, 5 months and 20 days) |
Son of Louis IV | 941 – 2 March 986 (aged 44) Died of natural causes[33] | |
| Louis V "the Do-Nothing" | 2 March 986[lower-roman 12] – 22 May 987 (1 year, 2 months and 20 days) |
Son of Lothair | 967 – 22 May 987[lower-alpha 11] (aged 20) Died in a hunting accident[35] |
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Main article: Capetian dynasty
The Capetian dynasty is named for Hugh Capet, a Robertian who served as Duke of the Franks and was elected King in 987. Except for the Bonaparte-led Empires, every monarch of France was a male-line descendant of Hugh Capet. The kingship passed through patrilineally from father to son until the 14th century, a period known as Direct Capetian rule. Afterwards, it passed to the House of Valois, a cadet branch that descended from Philip III. The Valois claim was disputed by Edward III, the Plantagenet king of England who claimed himself as the rightful king of France through his French mother Isabella; the two houses fought the Hundred Years' War over the issue, and with Henry VI of England being for a time partially recognized as King of France. The Valois line died out in the late 16th century, during the French Wars of Religion, to be replaced by the distantly related House of Bourbon, which descended through the Direct Capetian Louis IX. The Bourbons would rule France until deposed in the French Revolution, though they would be restored to the throne after the fall of Napoleon. The last Capetian to rule would be Louis Philippe I, king of the July Monarchy (1830–1848), a member of the cadet House of Bourbon-Orléans.
House of Capet (987–1328)
Main article: House of Capet
The House of Capet are also commonly known as the "Direct Capetians".
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| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hugh "Capet" Hugues[lower-alpha 12] |
1 June 987[lower-roman 13] – 24 October 996 (9 years, 4 months and 23 days) |
Elected king by the French nobles. Son of Hugh the Great and grandson of Robert I[lower-alpha 13] | c. 940 – 24 October 996 (aged approx. 55) Duke of the Franks since 956. Died of natural causes.[39] | ||
| Robert II "the Pious" | 24 October 996[lower-roman 14] – 20 July 1031 (34 years, 8 months and 26 days) |
Only son of Hugh Capet | c. 970 – 20 July 1031 (aged approx. 60) Married thrice, getting excommunicated by the Catholic Church. Incorporated the Duchy of Burgundy[40] | ||
| Hughes (junior king)[lower-alpha 14] |
19 June 1017 – 17 September 1025 (under Robert II) |
Son of Robert II | c. 1007 – 17 September 1025 (aged approx. 18)[41] | ||
| Henry I Henri |
20 July 1031[lower-roman 15] – 4 August 1060 (29 years and 15 days) |
Son of Robert II | c. 1005 – 4 August 1060 (aged approx. 55) His reign was marked with internal struggle against feudal lords[42] | ||
| Philip I "the Amorous" Philippe |
4 August 1060[lower-roman 16] – 29 July 1108 (47 years, 11 months and 25 days) |
Son of Henry I | 1052 – 29 July 1108 (aged 56) Ruled under the regency of Anne of Kiev and Count Baldwin V until 1066[43] | ||
| Louis VI "the Fat" | 29 July 1108[lower-roman 17] – 1 August 1137 (29 years and 3 days) |
Son of Philip I | 1081 – 1 August 1137 (aged 56) His reign contributed to the centralization of royal power. First king to wage war against the English[44] | ||
| Philippe (junior king)[lower-alpha 14] |
14 April 1129 – 13 October 1131 (under Louis VI) |
Son of Louis VI | 29 August 1116 – 13 October 1131 (aged 15)[45] | ||
| Louis VII "the Young" | 1 August 1137[lower-roman 18] – 18 September 1180 (43 years, 1 month and 17 days) |
Son of Louis VI | 1120 – 18 September 1180 (aged 60) Known for his rivalry with Henry II of England and his military campaigns during the Second Crusade[46] | ||
| Philip II "Augustus" Philippe Auguste |
18 September 1180[lower-roman 19]– 14 July 1223 (42 years, 9 months and 26 days) |
Son of Louis VII | 21 August 1165 – 14 July 1223 (aged 57) Regarded as one of the greatest French rulers. First monarch to style himself as "King of France"[47] | ||
| Louis VIII "the Lion" | 14 July 1223[lower-roman 20]– 8 November 1226 (3 years, 3 months and 25 days) |
Son of Philip II | 5 September 1187 – 8 November 1226 (aged 39) Proclaimed king of England in 1216, after which he led an unsuccessful invasion[48] | ||
| Louis IX "the Saint" | 8 November 1226[lower-roman 21]– 25 August 1270 (43 years, 9 months and 17 days) |
Son of Louis VIII | 25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270 (aged 56) Ruled under the regency of Blanche of Castile until 1234. Died during the 8th Crusade; only king to be venerated by the Catholic Church[49] | ||
| Philip III "the Bold" Philippe |
25 August 1270[lower-roman 22]– 5 October 1285 (15 years, 1 month and 10 days) |
Son of Louis IX | 3 April 1245 – 5 October 1285 (aged 40) Greatly expanded French influence in Europe. Died of a fever[50] | ||
| Philip IV "the Fair" Philippe |
5 October 1285[lower-roman 23] – 29 November 1314 (29 years, 1 month and 24 days) |
Son of Philip III | 1268 – 29 November 1314 (aged 46) King of Navarre (as Philip I) since 16 August 1284, following his marriage with Joan I. Remembered for his struggle with the Roman papacy and his consolidation of royal power, which helped to reduce the influence of feudal lords[51] | ||
| Louis X "the Quarreller" | 29 November 1314[lower-roman 24]– 5 June 1316 (1 year, 6 months and 7 days) |
Son of Philip IV | 3 October 1289 – 5 June 1316 (aged 26) King of Navarre (as Louis I) since 2 April 1305. His short reign was marked by conflicts with the nobility[52] | ||
| John I "the Posthumous" Jean |
15–19 November 1316 (4 days) |
Posthumous son of Louis X | King for the four days he lived; youngest and shortest undisputed monarch in French history[lower-alpha 15] | ||
| Philip V "the Tall" Philippe |
20 November 1316[lower-roman 25]– 3 January 1322 (5 years, 1 month and 14 days) |
Son of Philip IV and uncle of John I | 1293/4 – 3 January 1322 (aged 28–29) King of Navarre as Philip II. Died without a male heir[57] | ||
| Charles IV "the Fair" | 3 January 1322[lower-roman 26]– 1 February 1328 (6 years and 29 days) |
Son of Philip IV and younger brother of Philip V | 1294 – 1 February 1328 (aged 34) King of Navarre as Charles I. Died without a male heir, ending the direct line of Capetians[58] |
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House of Valois (1328–1589)
Main article: House of Valois
The death of Charles IV started the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, whose claim was taken up by the cadet branch known as the House of Lancaster, over control of the French throne. The Valois claimed the right to the succession by male-only primogeniture through the ancient Salic Law, having the closest all-male line of descent from a recent French king. They were descended from the third son of Philip III, Charles, Count of Valois. The Plantagenets based their claim on being closer to a more recent French king, Edward III of England being a grandson of Philip IV through his mother, Isabella.
The two houses fought the Hundred Years War to enforce their claims. The Valois were ultimately successful, and French historiography counts their leaders as rightful kings. One Plantagenet, Henry VI of England, enjoyed de jure control of the French throne following the Treaty of Troyes, which formed the basis for continued English claims to the throne of France until 1801. The Valois line ruled France until the line became extinct in 1589, in the backdrop of the French Wars of Religion. As Navarre did not have a tradition of male-only primogeniture, the Navarrese monarchy became distinct from the French with Joan II, a daughter of Louis X.
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| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Philip VI "the Fortunate" Philippe |
1 April 1328[lower-roman 27] – 22 August 1350 (22 years, 4 months and 21 days) |
Son of Charles, Count of Valois, grandson of Philip III and cousin of Charles IV | 1293 – 22 August 1350 (aged 57) His reign was dominated by the consequences of a succession dispute, which led to the Hundred Years' War.[59] | ||
| John II "the Good" Jean |
22 August 1350[lower-roman 28] – 8 April 1364 (13 years, 7 months and 17 days) |
Son of Philip VI | April 1319[lower-alpha 17] – 8 April 1364 (aged 45) Captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers (1356); forced to sign a series of humiliating treaties[60] | ||
| Charles V "the Wise" | 8 April 1364[lower-roman 29]– 16 September 1380 (16 years, 5 months and 8 days) |
Son of John II; named Dauphin on 16 July 1349 | 21 January 1337 – 16 September 1380 (aged 43) His reign was marked with internal struggle against feudal lords[61] | ||
| Charles VI "the Mad" "the Beloved" | 16 Sept 1380[lower-roman 30]– 21 October 1422 (42 years, 1 month and 5 days) |
Son of Charles V | 3 December 1368 – 21 October 1422 (aged 53) Ruled under the regency of his uncles until 1388. Suffered a long period of mental illness before dying of natural causes[62] | ||
| Henry VI of England (claimant) |
21 October 1422[lower-roman 31]– 19 October 1453[lower-alpha 18] (disputed; 31 years) |
Maternal grandson of Charles VI, recognized as heir after the Treaty of Troyes of 21 May 1420 | 6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471 (aged 49) King of England since 1 September 1422. Ruled under several regencies until 1437[63] | ||
| Charles VII "the Victorious" "the Well-Served" | 21 October 1422[lower-roman 32] – 22 July 1461 (38 years, 9 months and 1 day) |
Son of Charles VI and uncle of Henry VI of England, named Dauphin in April 1417 | 22 February 1403 – 22 July 1461 (aged 58) His reign saw the end of the Hundred Years' War[64] | ||
| Louis XI "the Prudent" "the Universal Spider" | 22 July 1461[lower-roman 33] – 30 August 1483 (22 years, 1 month and 8 days) |
Son of Charles VII | 3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483 (aged 60) His reign saw the strengthening and expansion of royal power. Nicknamed "the Universal Spider" for the numerous intrigues during his rule[65] | ||
| Charles VIII "the Affable" | 30 August 1483[lower-roman 34] – 7 April 1498 (14 years, 7 months and 8 days) |
Son of Louis XI | 30 June 1470 – 7 April 1498 (aged 27) Ruled under the regency of his sister Anne until 1491. Started the long and unsuccessful Italian Wars. Died after hitting his head with a lintel[66] |
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House of Valois-Orléans (1498–1515)
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| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis XII "Father of the People" | 7 April 1498[lower-roman 35] – 1 January 1515 (16 years, 8 months and 25 days) |
Great-grandson of Charles V. Second cousin, and by first marriage son-in-law, of Louis XI | 27 June 1462 – 1 January 1515 (aged 52) Briefly conquered the Kingdom of Naples and the Duchy of Milan[67] |
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House of Valois-Angoulême (1515–1589)
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| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Francis I "the Father of Letters" François |
1 January 1515[lower-roman 36] – 31 March 1547 (32 years, 2 months and 30 days) |
Great-great-grandson of Charles V. First cousin once removed, and by first marriage son-in-law, of Louis XII | 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547 (aged 52) Remembered as a Renaissance patron of the arts and scholarship. Died of a fever[68] | ||
| Henry II Henri |
31 March 1547[lower-roman 37] – 10 July 1559 (12 years, 3 months and 10 days) |
Son of Francis I, named Dauphin in August 1536 | 31 March 1519 – 10 July 1559 (aged 40) His reign saw the end of the Italian Wars. Died after being accidentally stabbed in a Jousting tournament[69] | ||
| Francis II François |
10 July 1559[lower-roman 38] – 5 December 1560 (1 year, 4 months and 25 days) |
Son of Henry II | 20 January 1544 – 5 December 1560 (aged 16) King consort of Scotland since 24 April 1558. A weak and sick boy, he remained under the regency of the House of Guise until his premature death[70] | ||
| Charles IX | 5 December 1560[lower-roman 39] – 30 May 1574 (13 years, 5 months and 25 days) |
Younger brother of Francis II | 27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574 (aged 23) Ruled under the regency of his mother Catherine until 1563, but remained under her influence until his death. The Wars of Religion began under his reign (1562). Best remembered for the Massacre of Vassy[71] | ||
| Henry III Henri |
30 May 1574[lower-roman 40] – 2 August 1589 (15 years, 2 months and 3 days) |
Younger brother of Francis II and Charles IX | 19 September 1551 – 2 August 1589 (aged 37) Initially ruler of Poland–Lithuania.[lower-alpha 19] He reigned through the devastating Wars of Religion, which eventually led to his own assassination[75] |
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House of Bourbon (1589–1792)
Main article: House of Bourbon
The Valois line looked strong on the death of Henry II, who left four male heirs. His first son, Francis II, died in his minority. His second son, Charles IX, had no legitimate sons to inherit. Following the premature death of his fourth son Hercule François and the assassination of his third son, the childless Henry III, France was plunged into a succession crisis over which distant cousin of the king would inherit the throne. The best claimant, King Henry III of Navarre, was a Protestant, and thus unacceptable to much of the French nobility.
Ultimately, after winning numerous battles in defence of his claim, Henry converted to Catholicism and was crowned as King Henry IV, founding the House of Bourbon. This marked the second time the thrones of Navarre and France were united under one monarch, as different inheritance laws had caused them to become separated during the events of the Hundred Years Wars. The House of Bourbon was overthrown during the French Revolution and replaced by a short-lived republic.
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| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Charles X (claimant) |
2 August 1589 – 9 May 1590 (disputed; 9 months and 7 days) |
7x great-grandson of Louis IX. Proclaimed king by the Catholic League in opposition to Henry of Navarre | 22 December 1523 – 9 May 1590 (aged 66) Imprisoned by Henry III on 23 December 1588; remained his entire "reign" in captivity. Died of natural causes[76] | ||
| Henry IV "the Great" "the Good King" Henri |
2 August 1589[lower-roman 41] – 14 May 1610 (20 years, 9 months and 12 days) |
10th-generation descendant of Louis IX; also nephew of Charles (X) and by first marriage son-in-law of Henry II. Proclaimed king on Henry III's deathbed | 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610 (aged 56) King of Lower Navarre (as Henry III) since 10 June 1572. Killed in Paris on 14 May 1610 by Catholic fanatic François Ravaillac.[77] | ||
| Louis XIII "the Just" | 14 May 1610[lower-roman 42] – 14 May 1643 (33 years) |
Son of Henry IV | 27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643 (aged 41) Last King of Lower Navarre (as Louis II).[lower-alpha 20] Died of natural causes.[78] | ||
| Louis XIV "the Great" "the Sun King" | 14 May 1643[lower-roman 43] – 1 September 1715 (72 years, 3 months and 18 days) |
Son of Louis XIII | 5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715 (aged 76) Ruled under the regency of his mother Anne of Austria until 1651. Longest reigning sovereign monarch in history[79] | ||
| Louis XV "the Beloved" | 1 September 1715[lower-roman 44] – 10 May 1774 (58 years, 8 months and 9 days) |
Great-grandson of Louis XIV | 15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774 (aged 64) Ruled under the regency of Philippe II, Duke of Bourbon-Orléans, until 1723[80] | ||
| Louis XVI | 10 May 1774[lower-roman 45] – 21 September 1792[lower-alpha 21] (18 years, 4 months and 11 days) |
Grandson of Louis XV | 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793 (aged 38) Forced to install a constitutional monarchy after 1789. Formally deposed following the proclamation of the First Republic, executed in public[81] | ||
| Louis XVII (claimant) |
21 January 1793 – 8 June 1795 (2 years, 4 months and 18 days; disputed) |
Son of Louis XVI; named Dauphin on 4 June 1789 | 27 March 1785 – 8 June 1795 (aged 10) Imprisoned by the revolutionary forces on 13 August 1792. Remained his entire "reign" in captivity[82] |
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Main article: French First Republic
National Convention
Main article: National Convention
From 22 September 1792 to 2 November 1795, the French Republic was governed by the National Convention, whose president (elected from within for a 14-day term) may be considered as France's legitimate head of state during this period. Historians generally divide the Convention's activities into three periods, moderate, radical, and reaction, and the policies of presidents of the Convention reflect these distinctions. During the radical and reaction phases, some of the presidents were executed, most by guillotine, committed suicide, or were deported. In addition, some of the presidents were later deported during the Bourbon Restoration in 1815.
Moderate phase
Initially, La Marais, or The Plain, a moderate, amorphous group, controlled the Convention. At the first session, held on 20 September 1792, the elder statesman Philippe Rühl presided over the session. The following day, amidst profound silence, the proposition was put to the assembly, "That royalty be abolished in France"; it carried, with cheers. On the 22nd came the news of the Republic's victory at the Battle of Valmy. On the same day, the Convention decreed that "in future, the acts of the assembly shall be dated First Year of the French Republic". Three days later, the Convention added the corollary of "the French republic is one and indivisible", to guard against federalism.[83]
The following men were elected for two-week terms as presidents, or executives, of the Convention.[84]
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| Image | Dates | Name | Fate |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20 September 1792 | Philippe Rühl | Suicide, 29/30 May 1795 | |
| 20 September 1792 – 4 October 1792 | Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve | Suicide, 18 June 1794 | |
| 4 October 1792 – 18 October 1792 | Jean-François Delacroix | Guillotined with Georges Danton, 5 April 1794 | |
| 18 October 1792 – 1 November 1792 | Marguerite-Élie Guadet | Guillotined 17 June 1794 | |
| 1 November 1792 – 15 November 1792 | Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles | Guillotined with Georges Danton, 5 April 1794 | |
| 15 November 1792 – 29 November 1792 | Henri Grégoire | Died 28 May 1831 | |
| 29 November 1792 – 13 December 1792 | Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac | Died 13 January 1841 | |
| 13 December 1792 – 27 December 1792 | Jacques Defermon des Chapelières | Died 20 June 1831 | |
| 27 December 1792 – 10 January 1793 | Jean-Baptiste Treilhard | Died 1 December 1810 | |
| 10 January 1793 – 24 January 1793 | Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud | 31 October 1793, guillotined. | |
| 24 January 1793 – 7 February 1793 | Jean-Paul Rabaut Saint-Étienne | 5 December 1793, guillotined | |
| 7 February 1793 – 21 February 1793 | Jean-Jacques Bréard, dit Bréard-Duplessis | 2 January 1840 | |
| 21 February 1793 – 7 March 1793 | Edmond Louis Alexis Dubois-Crancé | 29 June 1814 | |
| 7 March 1793 – 21 March 1793 | Armand Gensonné | 31 October 1793, guillotined | |
| 21 March 1793 – 4 April 1793 | Jean Antoine Joseph Debry | 6 January 1834, Paris | |
| 4 April 1793 – 18 April 1793 | Jean-François-Bertrand Delmas | Disappeared 19 August 1798[Notes 1] | |
| 18 April 1793 – 2 May 1793 | Marc David Alba Lasource | 31 October 1793, guillotined with the Girondins | |
| 2 May 1793 – 16 May 1793 | Jean-Baptiste Boyer-Fonfrède | 31 October 1793, guillotined | |
| 16 May 1793 – 30 May 1793 | Maximin Isnard | 12 March 1825 | |
| 30 May 1793 – 13 June 1793 | François-René-Auguste Mallarmé | 25 July 1835 |
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At the end of May 1793, an uprising of the Parisian sans culottes, the day-laborers and working class, undermined much of the authority of the moderate Girondins.[85] At this point, although Danton and Hérault de Séchelles both served one more term each as Presidents of the Convention, the Girondins had lost control of the Convention: in June and July compromise after compromise changed the course of the revolution from a bourgeois event to a radical, working class event. Price controls were introduced and a minimum wage guaranteed to workers and soldiers. Over the course of the summer, the government became truly revolutionary.[86]
Radical phase
See also: Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 and Reign of Terror
After the insurrection, any attempted resistance to revolutionary ideals was crushed. The insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 marked a significant milestone in the history of the French Revolution. The days of 31 May – 2 June (French: journées) resulted in the fall of the Girondin party under pressure of the Parisian sans-culottes, Jacobins of the clubs, and Montagnards in the National Convention. The following men were elected as presidents of the Convention during its transition from its moderate to radical phase.[87]
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| Portrait | Name (Born–Died) |
Term of office | Political party | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Took office | Left office | Time in office | ||||
| Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796) |
13 June 1793 | 27 June 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jacques Alexis Thuriot de la Rosière (1753–1829) |
27 June 1793 | 11 July 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Andre Jeanbon Saint Andre (1753–1813) |
11 July 1793 | 25 July 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Georges Jacques Danton (1759–1794) |
25 July 1793 | 8 August 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles (1759–1794) |
8 August 1793 | 22 August 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
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The following men were elected as presidents of the Convention during its radical phase.[87]
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| Portrait | Name (Born–Died) |
Term of office | Political party | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Took office | Left office | Time in office | ||||
| Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) |
22 August 1793 | 5 September 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756–1819) |
5 September 1793 | 19 September 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Pierre Joseph Cambon (1756–1820) |
19 September 1793 | 3 October 1793 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Louis-Joseph Charlier (1754–1797) |
3 October 1793 | 22 October 1793 | 19 days | The Mountain | ||
| Moïse Antoine Pierre Jean Bayle (1755–1815) |
22 October 1793 | 6 November 1793 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Pierre-Antoine Lalloy (1749–1846) |
6 November 1793 | 21 November 1793 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Charles-Gilbert Romme (1750–1795) |
21 November 1793 | 6 December 1793 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jean-Henri Voulland (1751–1801) |
6 December 1793 | 21 December 1793 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Georges Auguste Couthon (1755–1794) |
21 December 1793 | 5 January 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) |
5 January 1794 | 20 January 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Marc Guillaume Alexis Vadier (1736–1828) |
20 January 1794 | 4 February 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Joseph-Nicolas Barbeau du Barran (1761–1816) |
4 February 1794 | 19 February 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794) |
19 February 1794 | 6 March 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Philippe Rühl (1737–1795) |
7 March 1794 | 21 March 1794 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jean-Lambert Tallien (1767–1820) |
21 March 1794 | 5 April 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jean-Baptiste-André Amar (1755–1816) |
5 April 1794 | 20 April 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Robert Lindet (1746–1825) |
20 April 1794 | 5 May 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) |
5 May 1794 | 20 May 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois (1763–1832) |
20 May 1794 | 4 June 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) |
4 June 1794 | 19 June 1794 | 15 days | The Mountain | ||
| Élie Lacoste (1745–1806) |
19 June 1794 | 5 July 1794 | 16 days | The Mountain | ||
| Jean-Antoine Louis (1742–1796) |
5 July 1794 | 19 July 1794 | 14 days | The Mountain | ||
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Reaction
See also: The Mountain and Thermidorian Reaction
On 27 July 1794, the National Convention voted for the arrest of Maximilien Robespierre, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, and several allies, and they were executed the following day. This ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution.[88][Notes 2]
The following men were presidents of the Convention until its end.[87]
More information Image, Dates ...
| Image | Dates | Name | DOD/Fate |
|---|---|---|---|
| 19 July 1794 – 3 August 1794 | Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois | 8 June 1796 | |
| 3 August 1794 – 18 August 1794 | Philippe Antoine Merlin, dit Merlin de Douai | 26 December 1838 | |
| 18 August 1794 – 2 September 1794 | Antoine Merlin de Thionville | 14 September 1833 | |
| 2 September 1794 – 22 September 1794 | André Antoine Bernard, dit Bernard de Saintes | 19 October 1818 | |
| 22 September 1794 – 7 October 1794 | André Dumont | 19 October 1838 | |
| 7 October 1794 – 22 October 1794 | Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès | 8 March 1824 One of the few members of La Marais to be elected President Authored Napoleon's Civil Code | |
| 22 October 1794 – 6 November 1794 | Pierre-Louis Prieur, dit Prieur de la Marne | 31 May 1827 | |
| 6 November 1794 – 24 November 1794 | Louis Legendre | 13 December 1797, died of natural causes (dementia) | |
| 24 November 1794 – 6 December 1794 | Jean-Baptiste Clauzel | 2 July 1803 | |
| 6 December 1794 – 21 December 1794 | Jean-François Reubell | 23 November 1807 | |
| 21 December 1794 – 6 January 1795 | Pierre-Louis Bentabole | 1797 | |
| 6 January 1795 – 20 January 1795 | Étienne-François Le Tourneur | 4 October 1817 | |
| 20 January 1795 – 4 February 1795 | Stanislas Joseph François Xavier Rovère | died in 1798 in French Guiana | |
| 4 February 1795 – 19 February 1795 | Paul Barras | 29 January 1829 | |
| 19 February 1795 – 6 March 1795 | François Louis Bourdon | 22 June 1798, after being deported to French Guiana | |
| 6 March 1795 – 24 March 1795 | Antoine Claire Thibaudeau | 8 March 1854 | |
| 24 March 1795 – 5 April 1795 | Jean Pelet, also Pelet de la Lozère | 26 January 1842 | |
| 5 April 1795 – 20 April 1795 | François-Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas | 1828 One of the few members of La Marais to be elected President | |
| 20 April 1795 – 5 May 1795 | Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès | 20 June 1836 One of the few members of La Marais to be elected President | |
| 5 May 1795 – 26 May 1795 | Théodore Vernier | 3 February 1818 | |
| 26 May 1795 – 4 June 1795 | Jean-Baptiste Charles Matthieu | 31 October 1833 | |
| 4 June 1795 – 19 June 1795 | Jean Denis, comte Lanjuinais | died in 1828 in Paris | |
| 19 June 1795 – 4 July 1795 | Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray | 25 August 1797 | |
| 4 July 1795 – 19 July 1795 | Louis-Gustave Doulcet de Pontécoulant | 17 November 1764 – 3 April 1853 | |
| 19 July 1795 – 3 August 1795 | Louis-Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux | 24 March 1824 | |
| 3 August 1795 – 19 August 1795 | Pierre Claude François Daunou | 20 June 1840 | |
| 19 August 1795 – 2 September 1795 | Marie-Joseph Chénier | 10 January 1811 | |
| 2 September 1795 – 23 September 1795 | Théophile Berlier | 12 September 1844 | |
| 23 September 1795 – 8 October 1795 | Pierre-Charles-Louis Baudin | 1799 | |
| 8 October 1795 – 26 October 1795 | Jean Joseph Victor Génissieu | 27 October 1804 |
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Directory
Main article: French Directory
The Directory was officially led by a president, as stipulated by Article 141 of the Constitution of the Year III. An entirely ceremonial post, the first president was Jean-François Rewbell, who was chosen by lot on 2 November 1795. The Directors conducted their elections privately, with the presidency rotating every three months.[89] The last President was Louis-Jérôme Gohier.[90]
The leading figure of the Directory was Paul Barras, the only director to serve throughout the Directory.
- Political parties
Centre (Thermidorians) Right-wing (Clichyens) Left-wing (Montagnards) Other (Maraisards)
More information Directors of the Directory (1 November 1795 – 10 November 1799) ...
| Directors of the Directory (1 November 1795 – 10 November 1799) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 2 November 1795 – 9 November 1799 |
 de la Révellière 2 November 1795 – 18 June 1799 (Compelled to resign) |
 2 November 1795 – 16 May 1799 (Replaced by sortition) |
.jpg) 2 November 1795 – 4 September 1797 (Proscribed and replaced after the Coup of 18 Fructidor) |
 2 November 1795 – 20 May 1797 | |||||
 20 May – 4 September 1797 (Proscribed and replaced after the Coup of 18 Fructidor) | |||||||||
 4 September 1797 – 18 June 1799 (Compelled to resign) |
.jpg) 4 September 1797 – 15 May 1798 (Replaced by sortition) | ||||||||
_juriste_et_homme_politique_français.jpg) 15 May 1798 – 17 June 1799 (Election annulled as irregular) | |||||||||
 16 May – 9 November 1799 | |||||||||
 18 June – 9 November 1799 |
 18 June – 10 November 1799 |
 17 June – 10 November 1799 | |||||||
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After the Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799), Barras, Ducos, and Sieyès resigned.
Moulin and Gohier, refusing to resign, were arrested by General Moreau.
Consulate
Main article: French Consulate
More information Consuls of the Consulate (10 November 1799 – 18 May 1804), First Consul ...
| Consuls of the Consulate (10 November 1799 – 18 May 1804) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| First Consul | Second Consul | Third Consul | |
| Provisional Consuls (10 November – 12 December 1799) |
 |
.JPG) | |
| Consuls (12 December 1799 – 18 May 1804) |
 | ||
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Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in 1804, reigning as Emperor Napoleon I 1804–1814 (First French Empire) and 1815 (Hundred Days).
The monarchy was restored 1814–1815 and 1815–1830 (Bourbon Restoration); again 1830–1848 (July Monarchy).
Main articles: House of Bonaparte and First French Empire
More information Portrait, Name ...
| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Napoleon I | 18 May 1804[lower-roman 46] – 2 April 1814[lower-alpha 22] (9 years, 10 months and 15 days) |
First Consul of the French Republic following the coup d'etat of 19 November 1799; self-proclaimed Emperor of the French | 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 (aged 51) Conquered most of Europe in a series of successful wars; remembered as one of the greatest military commanders in history. Deposed in absentia and forced to abdicate, then exiled to the island of Elba[92] | ||
| Napoleon II (claimant) |
4 – 6 April 1814 (2 days; disputed) |
Son of Napoleon I | 20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832 (aged 21) Unrecognized by the Coalition and the Senate, only named emperor in Napoleon's will. |
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Main article: Bourbon Restoration in France
More information Portrait, Name ...
| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis XVIII "the Desired" | 3 May 1814[lower-roman 47] – 20 March 1815 (1st time; 10 months and 17 days) |
Younger brother of Louis XVI; proclaimed king in June 1795. Had his dynasty restored to the throne with the help of other European royal houses, which had dethroned Napoleon | 17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 (aged 68) Fled France on 21 June 1791, during the Flight to Varennes, and again in March 1815, after the return of Napoleon[93] |
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Main article: Hundred Days
More information Portrait, Name ...
| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Napoleon I | 20 March – 22 June 1815 (94 days) |
Restored as Emperor of the French by the French Army following his escape from the island of Elba | 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 (aged 51) Abdicated in favour of his son following his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Exiled to the island of Saint Helena, where he later died of a stomach illness[92] | ||
| Napoleon II (claimant) |
22 June – 7 July 1815 (15 days; disputed) |
Son of Napoleon I | 20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832 (aged 21) Unrecognized by the Coalition; remained his entire "reign" hidden in Austria, with his mother Marie Louise. Died of tuberculosis several years later[94][95] |
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Main article: Bourbon Restoration in France
More information Portrait, Name ...
| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis XVIII "the Desired" | 8 July 1815 – 16 September 1824 (9 years, 2 months and 8 days) |
Younger brother of Louis XVI; restored to the throne. | 17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 (aged 68) Attempted to rule under a constitutional monarchy. Last French monarch to die while still reigning[93] | ||
| Charles X | 16 September 1824[lower-roman 48]– 2 August 1830 (5 years, 10 months and 17 days) |
Younger brother of Louis XVI and Louis XVIII | 9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 (aged 79) Leader of the Ultra-royalists; attempted to return to the Ancient Regime. Abdicated in favour of his grandson Henry after the July Revolution.[96] | ||
| Louis XIX (?) (claimant) |
2 August 1830 (20 minutes; disputed) |
Son of Charles X | 6 August 1775 – 3 June 1844 (aged 68) Allegedly king for 20 minutes;[lower-alpha 23] later legitimist pretender to the throne.[99] | ||
| Henry V (claimant) |
2–9 August 1830 (7 days; disputed) |
Grandson of Charles X | 29 September 1820 – 24 August 1883 (aged 62) Later legitimist pretender to the throne. Died in exile several years later[100] |
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Main articles: House of Bourbon-Orléans and July Monarchy
The Bourbon Restoration came to an end with the July Revolution of 1830 which deposed Charles X and replaced him with Louis Philippe I, a distant cousin with more liberal politics. Charles X's son Louis signed a document renouncing his own right to the throne only after a 20-minute argument with his father. Because he was never crowned he is disputed as a genuine king of France. Louis's nephew Henry was likewise considered by some to be Henry V, but the new regime did not recognise his claim and he never ruled.
Charles X named Louis Philippe as Lieutenant général du royaume, a regent to the young Henry V, and charged him to announce his desire to have his grandson succeed him to the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the French Parliament at the time, the French equivalent at the time of the UK House of Commons. Louis Philippe did not do this, in order to increase his own chances of succession. As a consequence, and because the French parliamentarians were aware of his liberal policies and of his popularity at the time with the French population, they proclaimed Louis Philippe as the new French king, displacing the senior branch of the House of Bourbon.
More information Portrait, Name ...
| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis Philippe I "the Citizen King" | 9 August 1830[lower-roman 49]– 24 February 1848 (17 years, 6 months and 15 days) |
Sixth-generation descendant of Louis XIII and distant cousin of Charles X; proclaimed king by the Chamber of Deputies after the abdication of Charles X during the July Revolution | 6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850 (aged 76) Styled as King of the French. Formally deposed following the proclamation of the Second Republic. Abdicated in favour of his grandson[101] | ||
| Louis Philippe II (claimant) |
24–26 February 1848 (2 days; disputed) |
Grandson of Louis-Philippe | 24 August 1838 – 8 September 1894 (aged 56) Chosen by Louis Philippe I to be his successor, however the National Assembly refused to recognize him as king and proclaimed the Second Republic. Later Orléanist pretender to the throne.[102] |
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Main article: French Second Republic
President of the Provisional Government of the Republic
See also: French Provisional Government of 1848
- Political parties
More information Portrait, Name (Birth–Death) ...
| Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure[103] (1767–1855) |
26 February 1848 | 9 May 1848 | 73 days | Moderate Republicans | |
| 1848 | |||||
| Appointed President of the Provisional Government by the National Assembly, during the February Revolution. Resigned in May 1848, making way for the Executive Commission. | |||||
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President of the Executive Commission
See also: French Executive Commission (1848)
- Political parties
Moderate Republicans
More information Portrait, Name (Birth–Death) ...
| Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| François Arago[104] (1786–1853) |
9 May 1848 | 24 June 1848 | 46 days | Moderate Republicans | |
| 1848 | |||||
| The Executive Commission was appointed by the National Assembly, with François Arago acting as President of the Commission, and other members including Alphonse de Lamartine, Louis-Antoine Garnier-Pagès, Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin and Pierre Marie de Saint-Georges, who acted jointly as head of state. The Commission was removed from power by the National Assembly, during the June Days uprising, and replaced by an executive power under Louis-Eugène Cavaignac. | |||||
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Chief of the Executive Power
See also: Cabinet of General Cavaignac
- Political parties
Moderate Republicans
More information Portrait, Name (Birth–Death) ...
| Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis-Eugène Cavaignac[105] (1802–1857) |
28 June 1848 | 20 December 1848 | 175 days | Moderate Republicans | |
| 1848 | |||||
| Granted dictatorial powers by the National Assembly, during the June Days uprising. Following his suppression of the uprising, Cavaignac was appointed Chief of the Executive Power by the National Assembly. He ran in the 1848 French presidential election, but lost to Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who was elected the first President of the French Republic. | |||||
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President of the Republic
- Political parties
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office; Electoral mandates |
Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte[106] (1808–1873) |
20 December 1848 | 2 December 1852 | 3 years, 348 days | Bonapartist | |
| 1848 | ||||||
| Nephew of Napoléon I. Elected first President of the French Republic in the 1848 election against Louis-Eugène Cavaignac. He provoked the coup of 1851 and proclaimed himself Emperor in 1852. Henri Georges Boulay de la Meurthe, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's vice president, was the sole person to hold that office. | ||||||
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in 1852, reigning as Emperor Napoleon III 1852–1870 (Second French Empire).
Main article: Second French Empire
The French Second Republic lasted from 1848 to 1852, when its president, Charles-Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, was declared Emperor of the French under the regnal name of Napoleon III. He would later be overthrown during the events of the Franco-Prussian War, becoming the last monarch to rule France.
More information Portrait, Name ...
| Portrait | Name | Arms | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Napoleon III | 2 December 1852[lower-roman 50]– 4 September 1870 (17 years, 9 months and 2 days) |
Nephew of Napoleon I; elected as President of the French Republic in 1848, made himself Emperor of the French after a coup d'état | 20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873 (aged 64) Captured by the German army on 2 September 1870; deposed in absentia following the proclamation of the Third Republic.[107] |
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Main article: French Third Republic
President of the Government of National Defense
See also: Government of National Defense
- Political parties
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| — | Louis-Jules Trochu[108] (1815–1896) |
14 September 1870 | 13 February 1871 | 152 days | Moderate Monarchist (Orléanist) | |
| Following the capture of Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan, the National Assembly proclaimed the establishment of a Government of National Defense, with Louis Jules Trochu as its President. He rallied the French defenses during the Siege of Paris, but the Government was defeated by the nascent German Empire. | ||||||
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Chief of the Executive Power
- Political parties
Monarchist
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| — | Adolphe Thiers[109] (1797–1877) |
17 February 1871 | 30 August 1871 | 194 days | Moderate Monarchist (Orléanist); Opportunist Republican |
||
| Elected Chief of the Executive Power by the National Assembly, following the Siege of Paris, and established a government with a republican majority. After fighting to re-establish state control over the Paris Commune and securing the withdrawal of the German Army from France, he was elected President of the Republic by the National Assembly. | |||||||
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Presidents of the Republic
- Political parties
Monarchist
Opportunist Republican
Democratic Republican Alliance; Democratic Republican Party; Social and Republican Democratic Party; Democratic Alliance
Radical-Socialist and Radical Republican Party
Independent
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | Adolphe Thiers[110] (1797–1877) |
31 August 1871 | 24 May 1873 | 1 year, 266 days | Moderate Monarchist (Orléanist); Opportunist Republican | ||
| Initially a moderate monarchist, named President of France following the adoption of the Rivet law, establishing provisional republican institutions. He became a supporter of the Third Republic during his term. He resigned in the face of hostility from the National Assembly, largely in favour of a return to the monarchy. | |||||||
| 3 | Patrice de MacMahon[111] (1808–1893) |
24 May 1873 | 30 January 1879 | 5 years, 251 days | Monarchist (Legitimist) | ||
| A Marshal of France, he was the only monarchist (and only Duke) to serve as President of the Third Republic. He resigned shortly after the republican victory in the January 1879 legislative election, following a previous republican victory in 1877, after his decision to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. During his term, the Constitutional Laws of 1875 that served as the Constitution of the Third Republic were passed; he therefore became the first President under the constitutional settlement that would last until 1940. | |||||||
| The Government of Jules Armand Dufaure deputized during the interim (30 January 1879). | |||||||
| 4 | Jules Grévy[112] (1807–1891) |
30 January 1879 | 2 December 1887 | 8 years, 306 days | Opportunist Republican | ||
| The first President of France to complete a full term, he was easily reelected in December 1885. He was nonetheless forced to resign, following an honours scandal in which his son-in-law was implicated. | |||||||
| The Government of Maurice Rouvier deputized during the interim (2–3 December 1887). | |||||||
| 5 | Sadi Carnot[113] (1837–1894) |
3 December 1887 | 25 June 1894† | 6 years, 205 days | Opportunist Republican | ||
| His term was marked by Boulangist unrest and the Panama scandals, as well as by diplomacy with Russia. Assassinated (stabbed) by Sante Geronimo Caserio a few months before the end of his term, he is interred at the Panthéon. | |||||||
| The Government of Charles Dupuy deputized during the interim (25–27 June 1894). | |||||||
| 6 | Jean Casimir-Perier[114] (1847–1907) |
27 June 1894 | 16 January 1895 | 205 days | Opportunist Republican | ||
| Casimir-Perier's was the shortest presidential term: he resigned after six months and 20 days. | |||||||
| The Government of Charles Dupuy deputized during the interim (16–17 January 1895). | |||||||
| 7 | Félix Faure[115] (1841–1899) |
17 January 1895 | 16 February 1899† | 4 years, 30 days | Opportunist Republican; Progressive Republican | ||
| Pursued colonial expansion and ties with Russia. President during the Dreyfus affair. Four years into his term, he died of apoplexy at the Élysée Palace. | |||||||
| The Government of Charles Dupuy deputized during the interim (16–18 February 1899). | |||||||
| 8 | Émile Loubet[116] (1838–1929) |
18 February 1899 | 18 February 1906 | 7 years, 0 days | Democratic Republican Alliance | ||
| During his seven-year term, the 1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State was adopted. He did not seek reelection at the end of his term. | |||||||
| 9 | Armand Fallières[117] (1841–1931) |
18 February 1906 | 18 February 1913 | 7 years, 0 days | Democratic Republican Alliance; then Democratic Republican Party | ||
| President during the Agadir Crisis, when French troops first occupied Morocco. He was a party to the Triple Entente, which he strengthened by diplomacy. Like his predecessor, he did not seek reelection. | |||||||
| 10 | Raymond Poincaré[118] (1860–1934) |
18 February 1913 | 18 February 1920 | 7 years, 0 days | Democratic Republican Party; then Democratic Republican Alliance | ||
| President during World War I. He subsequently served as Prime minister, 1922–1924 and 1926–1929. | |||||||
| 11 | Paul Deschanel[119] (1855–1922) |
18 February 1920 | 21 September 1920 | 247 days | Democratic Republican Alliance; then Democratic Republican and Social Party | ||
| An intellectual elected to the Académie Française, he overcame the popular Georges Clemenceau, to general surprise, in the January 1920 election. He resigned after eight months due to health problems. | |||||||
| The Government of Alexandre Millerand deputized during the interim (21–23 September 1920). | |||||||
| 12 | Alexandre Millerand[120] (1859–1943) |
23 September 1920 | 11 June 1924 | 3 years, 262 days | Independent | ||
| An "Independent Socialist" increasingly drawn to the right, he resigned after four years following the victory of the Cartel des Gauches in the 1924 legislative election. | |||||||
| The Government of Frédéric François-Marsal deputized during the interim (11–13 June 1924). | |||||||
| 13 | Gaston Doumergue[121] (1863–1937) |
13 June 1924 | 13 June 1931 | 7 years, 0 days | Radical-Socialist and Radical Republican Party | ||
| The first Protestant President, he took a firm political stance against Germany and its resurgent nationalism. His seven-year term was marked by ministerial discontinuity. | |||||||
| 14 | Paul Doumer[122] (1857–1932) |
13 June 1931 | 7 May 1932† | 329 days | Independent | ||
| Elected in the second round of the 1931 election, having defeated Aristide Briand. Assassinated (shot) by the mentally unstable Paul Gorguloff. | |||||||
| The Government of André Tardieu deputized during the interim (7–10 May 1932). | |||||||
| 15 | Albert Lebrun[123] (1871–1950) |
10 May 1932 | 11 July 1940 (de facto) |
8 years, 32 days | Democratic Alliance | ||
| Reelected in 1939, his second term was interrupted by the rise to power of Marshal Philippe Pétain. | |||||||
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The office of President of the French Republic did not exist from 1940 until 1947.
Main article: Vichy France
Chief of State
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| — | Philippe Pétain (1856–1951) |
11 July 1940 | 19 August 1944 | 3 years, 351 days | ||
| 1940 | ||||||
| Following the fall of France and the signing of an armistice with Nazi Germany, Petain assumed dictatorial powers and established a collaborationist government. During the liberation of France, Petain's government fled to the Sigmaringen enclave, where they awaited the end of the war. | ||||||
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Main article: Provisional Government of the French Republic
Chairmen of the Provisional Government
See also: Tripartisme
Political parties Socialist (SFIO) Centre-right (MRP)
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office | Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| — | Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970) |
3 June 1944 | 26 January 1946 | 1 year, 237 days | Independent | |
| 1944 | ||||||
| Following the Liberation of France, the Committee of National Liberation evolved into a Provisional Government, with de Gaulle as its Chairman. He resigned abruptly in January 1946, after a failed attempt to centralise executive power. | ||||||
| — | Félix Gouin (1884–1977) |
26 January 1946 | 24 June 1946 | 149 days | French Section of the Workers International | |
| 1945 | ||||||
| Promoted from President of the National Assembly to Chairman of the Provisional Government after de Gaulle's resignation. | ||||||
| — | Georges Bidault (1899–1983) |
24 June 1946 | 28 November 1946 | 157 days | Popular Republican Movement | |
| 1946 | ||||||
| Elected as Chairman of the Provisional Government in June 1946, oversaw the passage of the French Constitution of 27 October 1946, then defeated in the subsequent election of November 1946. | ||||||
| — | Vincent Auriol (1884–1966) |
28 November 1946 | 16 December 1946 | 171 days | French Section of the Workers' International | |
| 1946 | ||||||
| Elected as Chairman of the Provisional Government in November 1946, overseeing an interim parliamentary government before his accession to President of France. | ||||||
| — | Léon Blum (1872–1950) |
16 December 1946 | 16 January 1947 | 31 days | French Section of the Workers' International | |
| 1946 | ||||||
| Oversaw the final interim government before the accession of Vincent Auriol to President. | ||||||
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Main article: French Fourth Republic
Presidents
Political parties
Socialist (SFIO) Centre-right (CNIP)
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office; Electoral mandates |
Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 | Vincent Auriol[124] (1884–1966) |
16 January 1947 | 16 January 1954 | 7 years, 0 days | French Section of the Workers' International | |
| 1947 | ||||||
| First President of the Fourth Republic; his term was marked by the First Indochina War. | ||||||
| 17 | René Coty[125] (1882–1962) |
16 January 1954 | 8 January 1959 | 4 years, 357 days | National Centre of Independents and Peasants | |
| 1953 | ||||||
| Presidency marked by the Algerian War; appealed to Charles de Gaulle to resolve the May 1958 crisis. Following the promulgation of the Fifth Republic, he resigned after five years as President of France, giving way to DeGaulle. | ||||||
Close
Main article: French Fifth Republic
Presidents
Political parties: Centre-left (PS) (2) Centrist (RE) (1) Centre-right (CD; RI; PR; UDF) (1) Gaullist (UNR; UDR) (2) Neo-Gaullist (RPR; UMP; LR) (2)
More information Nº, Portrait ...
| Nº | Portrait | Name (Birth–Death) |
Term of office; Electoral mandates |
Time in office | Political party | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | Charles de Gaulle[126] (1890–1970) |
8 January 1959 | 28 April 1969 | 10 years, 110 days | Union for the New Republic (renamed Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic in 1967) | |
| 1958, 1965 | ||||||
| Leader of the Free French Forces, 1940–1944. President of the Provisional Government, 1944–1946. Appointed President of the Council by René Coty in May 1958, to resolve the crisis of the Algerian War. Supported by referendum, he adopted a new Constitution of France, thus founding the Fifth Republic. Easily elected to the presidency in the 1958 election by electoral college, he took office the following month; having modified the presidential election procedure in the 1962 referendum, he was reelected by universal suffrage in the 1965 election. Launched the Force de dissuasion in 1961. He signed the Élysée Treaty in 1963, building Franco-German cooperation, a key to European integration. In 1966, he withdrew France from NATO integrated military command and had American military personnel stationed on French soil sent home. Supported Quebec sovereignty. Faced the May 68 civil unrest. Resigned following the failure of the 1969 referendum on regionalisation. | ||||||
| — | Alain Poher[127] Acting (1909–1996) |
28 April 1969 | 20 June 1969 | 53 days | Democratic Centre | |
| Interim President of France, as President of the Senate. Stood in the 1969 election but was defeated in the second round by Georges Pompidou. | ||||||
| 19 | Georges Pompidou[128] (1911–1974) |
20 June 1969 | 2 April 1974† | 4 years, 286 days | Union of Democrats for the Republic | |
| 1969 | ||||||
| Prime Minister under Charles de Gaulle, 1962–1968. Elected to the presidency in the 1969 election against centrist Alain Poher. Favoured European integration. Supported economic modernisation and industrialisation, most notably through the TGV high-speed rail project. Faced the 1973 oil crisis. Died in office of Waldenström macroglobulinemia, two years before the end of his term. | ||||||
| — | Alain Poher[127] Acting (1909–1996) |
2 April 1974 | 27 May 1974 | 55 days | Democratic Centre | |
| Interim President of France again, as President of the Senate. Did not stand in the 1974 election. | ||||||
| 20 | Valéry Giscard d'Estaing[129] (1926–2020) |
27 May 1974 | 21 May 1981 | 6 years, 359 days | Independent Republicans (renamed Republican Party in 1977) (within the Union for French Democracy from 1978) | |
| 1974 | ||||||
| Founder of the Independent Republicans and later the Union for French Democracy in his efforts to unify the centre-right, he served in several Gaullist governments. Narrowly elected in the 1974 election, he instigated numerous reforms, including the lowering of the age of civil majority from 21 to 18 and legalisation of abortion. He soon faced a global economic crisis and rising unemployment. Although the polls initially gave him a lead, he was defeated in the 1981 election by François Mitterrand, partly due to disunion within the right. | ||||||
| 21 | François Mitterrand[130] (1916–1996) |
21 May 1981 | 17 May 1995 | 13 years, 361 days | Socialist Party | |
| 1981, 1988 | ||||||
| Candidate of a united left-wing ticket in the 1965 election, he founded the Socialist Party in 1971. Having narrowly lost in 1974, he was finally elected in 1981. Mitterrand supervised a series of Great Works, the best known of which is the Louvre Pyramid. He instigated the abolition of the death penalty. After the right-wing victory in the 1986 legislative election, he named Jacques Chirac as Prime Minister, thus beginning the first cohabitation. Reelected in the 1988 election against Chirac, he was again forced to cohabit with Édouard Balladur following the 1993 legislative election. He retired in 1995 after the conclusion of his second term. He was the first left-wing President of the Fifth Republic; his presidential tenure was the longest of any French Republic. | ||||||
| 22 | Jacques Chirac[131] (1932–2019) |
17 May 1995 | 16 May 2007 | 11 years, 364 days | Rally for the Republic (until 2002) Union for a Popular Movement (from 2002) | |
| 1995, 2002 | ||||||
| Prime Minister, 1974–1976; upon resignation, founded the Rally for the Republic. Eliminated in the first round of the 1981 election, he again served as Prime Minister, 1986–1988. Defeated in the 1988 election, he was elected in 1995. He engaged in social reforms to counter "social fracture". In 1997, he dissolved the National Assembly; a left-wing victory in the 1997 legislative election forced him to name Lionel Jospin Prime Minister for a five-year cohabitation. Presidential terms reduced from seven to five years after approval by referendum. In 2002, he was easily reelected against Jean-Marie Le Pen. Sent troops to Afghanistan, but opposed the Iraq War. Declined to seek a third term in 2007 and retired from political life. | ||||||
| 23 | Nicolas Sarkozy[132] (b. 1955) |
16 May 2007 | 15 May 2012 | 4 years, 365 days | Union for a Popular Movement | |
| 2007 | ||||||
| Served in numerous ministerial posts, 1993–1995 and 2002–2007. Easily elected to the leadership of the Union for a Popular Movement in 2004. Elected to the presidency in 2007, defeating Socialist Ségolène Royal. Soon after taking office, he introduced a new fiscal package and other laws to counter illegal immigration and recidivism. President of the Council of the EU in 2008, he defended the Treaty of Lisbon and mediated in the Russo-Georgian War; reintroduced France to NATO integrated military command; President of the G8 and G20 in 2011. At national level, he had to deal with a financial crisis and its consequences. Following the 2008 constitutional reform, he became the first President of France since Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte to address the Versailles Congress on 22 June 2009. He introduced education and pension reforms. Sent troops to Libya (Operation Harmattan) in 2011. Narrowly defeated in the runoff of the 2012 election. | ||||||
| 24 | François Hollande[133] (b. 1954) |
15 May 2012 | 14 May 2017 | 4 years, 364 days | Socialist Party | |
| 2012 | ||||||
| Served as First Secretary of the Socialist Party, 1997–2008 and President of the General Council of Corrèze, 2008–2012. Elected in 2012, defeating Nicolas Sarkozy. Legalised same-sex marriage and restricted dual mandates. Militarily intervened in Mali (Operation Serval), in the Central African Republic (Operation Sangaris) and in Iraq and Syria (Operation Chammal). Paris suffered Islamic terrorist attacks in January 2015 and November 2015, as well as Nice in July 2016. Hosted the 2015 UN Climate Change Conference. Did not seek reelection in the 2017 election, for which polls suggested his defeat in the first round. | ||||||
| 25 | Emmanuel Macron[134] (b. 1977) |
14 May 2017 | Incumbent (term expires in May 2027) |
6 years, 348 days | La République En Marche! (renamed Renaissance in 2022) | |
| 2017, 2022 | ||||||
| Served as Élysée Deputy Secretary-General, 2012–2014 and Minister of the Economy, Industry and Digital Affairs, 2014–2016. Easily defeated Marine Le Pen in the 2017 election in which he ran as a centrist. Youngest President in the history of France. Has encountered massive demonstrations, most notably the yellow vests protests, since 2018 over his policy orientations and style of governance. Hosted the 2019 G7 summit. Faced the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, reelected with a reduced majority against Le Pen, losing the government's ruling majority in the National Assembly. | ||||||
Close
Various pretenders descended from the preceding monarchs have claimed to be the legitimate monarch of France, rejecting the claims of the President of France, and of each other. These groups are:
- Legitimist claimants to the throne of France: descendants of the Bourbons, rejecting all heads of state 1792–1814, 1815, and since 1830. Unionists recognized the Orléanist claimant after 1883.
- Legitimist-Anjou claimants to the throne of France: descendants of Louis XIV, claiming precedence over the House of Orléans by virtue of primogeniture
- Orléanist claimants to the throne of France: descendants of Louis-Phillippe, himself descended from a junior line of the Bourbon dynasty, rejecting all heads of state since 1848.
- Bonapartist claimants to the throne of France: descendants of Napoleon I and his brothers, rejecting all heads of state 1815–48, and since 1870.
- English claimants to the throne of France: Kings of England and later, of Great Britain (renounced by Hanoverian King George III upon union with Ireland)
- Jacobite claimants to the throne of France: senior heirs-general of King Edward III of England and thus his claim to the French throne, also claiming England, Scotland, and Ireland.
509–1795
1792–Present
- List of French monarchs
- List of presidents of the National Convention
- List of presidents of France
- Ministers of the French National Convention
- Representative on mission
- Full list of members of the Convention per department: List of members of the National Convention by Department (French)
- List of foreign ministers of France
- List of prime ministers of France
- President of France
- British claims to the French throne
- Kings of France family tree
- Style of the French sovereign
Notes
- From 9 Apr 1793 to 18 Apr 1793 the functions of president were exercised by vice-president Jacques-Alexis Thuriot de la Rosière. He was elected president in his own right for the fortnight 27 June 1793 – 11 July 1793
- The name Thermidorian refers to 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), the date according to the French Revolutionary Calendar when Robespierre and other radical revolutionaries came under concerted attack in the National Convention. Thermidorian Reaction also refers to the remaining period until the National Convention was superseded by the Directory; this is also sometimes called the era of the Thermidorian Convention. Prominent figures of Thermidor include Paul Barras, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Joseph Fouché. Neely, pp. 225–227.
- Louis the Pious and Charlemagne are both enumerated as "Louis I" and "Charles I" in the lists of French and German monarchs.
- Not to be confused with Louis II the German, son of Louis the Pious and king of East Francia (Germany). Both French and German monarchs saw themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, hence why many rulers share the same regnal name.
- Charles the Fat was initially king of East Francia (Germany) and Holy Roman Emperor. Given that he was the third emperor with that name, he is also known as Charles III. He must not to be confused with Charles the Simple, who is also enumerated as Charles III. This discrepancy originates from the regnal number adopted by Charles V, the first French king to assume one.[17]
- In older sources his birth was dated to 832, but nowadays 839 is the accepted date.[21]
- Some scholars give his death as 21 May, but contemporary sources give 22 May.[34]
- "Capet" (latin: Cappetus) was not actually a name, but a nickname adopted by later historians. It probably derived from chappe, an ecclesiastical mantle wore at the Abbey of Saint Martin of Tours.[36]
- Hugh was also descendant of Charlemagne's sons Louis the Pious and Pepin of Italy through his mother and paternal grandmother, respectively, and was also a nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor.[38]
- He lived from 15 to 19 November according to the continuator of Guillaume de Nangis.[53] The Chronique Parisienne Anonyme de 1316 à 1339 gives 13 and 18 November.[54] Modern sources often give his lifespan as 15–20 November.[55]
- This is the date in which the last English holdout was expelled by the French, with the exception of Calais.
- Lower Navarre was integrated into France during his reign.
- Louis XVI's powers as king became obsolete following the March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, after which he became a hostage of the revolutionary forces.
- The Sénat proclaimed the deposition in absentia of Napoleon on 2 April, which was followed by the Corps législatif on 3 April. Napoleon wrote an act of abdication on 4 April renouncing the throne in favour of his son. However, this was not accepted by the Coalition, so he wrote an unconditional abdication on 6 April renouncing his rights and that of his family.[91]
- Although claimed as the shortest reigning monarch by the Guinness World Records,[97] this claim appears to be unsustained.[98] The exact circumstances of his "abdication" are unknown, as it was announced in a document firmed by both Charles X and Louis, who is only called Dauphin. He is said to have been "king" between his father's signature and his own, as he (allegedly) initially refused to sign the document.
Coronation dates
- Charles II was crowned emperor on 25 December 875. For later Frankish and German emperors, see Holy Roman Emperor.
- Louis II was crowned on 8 December 877.[5]
- Louis III and Carloman II were crowned on September 879.[7]
- Louis III and Carloman II were crowned on September 879.[7]
- Charles the Fat was most likely crowned on 20 May 885.[18] He was already king of East Francia since 28 August 876. He was also crowned emperor on 12 February 881.[19]
- Odo was crowned on 29 February 888 and then again on 13 November.[23]
- Charles III was crowned on 28 January 893, in opposition to Odo.[lower-alpha 10]
- Robert I was crowned on 30 June 922.[29]
- Rudolph was crowned on 13 July 923.[lower-alpha 10]
- Hugh was elected and crowned king on 1 June 987, in Noyon. He was crowned again on 3 July in Paris by the archbishop of Reims. The latter date is usually regarded as the "official" start of the Capetian dynasty.[37]
- Robert II was crowned on 30 December 987.[37]
- Louis VII was crowned as a child on 25 October 1131, and again on 25 December 1137 alongside Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- Philip V was crowned on 9 January 1317.[lower-alpha 16]
- Henry (II) was crowned on 16 December 1431, at Notre-Dame de Paris.
- Napoleon I was crowned on 2 December 1804.
- A coronation ceremony for Napoleon III was planned, but never executed.
References
- Babcock, Philip (1993). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. MA, USA: Merriam-Webster. p. 341.
- Jackson 1995, Vol 1, pp. 110–123.
- McKitterick 1995, p. 137.
- Annales Vedastini. 884. "...he survived seven more days, and died in the same place... in December, about 18 years of age."
- Obituaires de la province de Sens I, p. 351. "VIII id. [6 December]."
- Annales S. Benigni Divionensis 884. "Non. Decemb. [5 December]".
- Brunel 2007, p. 79.
- MacLean 2003, p. 126.
- Schieffer, Theodor (1977), "Karl III", Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German), vol. 11, pp. 181–184
- MacLean 2003, p. 194.
- MacLean 2003, p. 84.
- Jackson 1995, Vol 1, pp. 133–138.
- Annales Prumienses 898. MGH XV(2), 1292.
- Obituaires de la province de Sens I, p. 343.
- Champion 1976, pp. 9–11.
- Richer (1845) [c. 995]. Histoire de son temps (in French). Vol. IV. J. Renouard. p. 147.
- Bodin 1840, p. 43.
- Alcan 1892, pp. 254–261.
- Thoison, p. 190; Humphreys, p. 10; EB, Louis VIII.
- Thoison, p. 191; Humphreys, p. 12; EB, Philip III.
- Hercule Géraud (1843) Chronique latine de Guillaume de Nangis, de 1113 à 1300. pp. 430–431.
- Amedée Hellot (1884). Chronique parisienne anonyme du XIVe siècle. p. 26.
- Jackson 1995, Vol II, p. 376.
- Peignot, p. 85; Humphreys, p. 17; EB, Charles IV.
- Peignot, p. 112; Humphreys, p. 21; EB, Charles VI.
- Curry 1993, pp. 102–122; Bradford 2004, pp. 621–625; EB, Henry VI.
- Peignot, p. 143; Humphreys, p. 27; Knecht 2007, p. 125; EB, Charles VII.
- Curry 1993, pp. 103–122; Humphreys, p. 35; EB, Francis II.
- Peignot, p. 179; Humphreys, p. 36; EB, Charles IX.
- Knecht 2016, p. 56. "On 5 May three orators were chosen [...] On 11 May the minority conceded defeat [but the election] did not happen till 15 May.".
- Knecht 2016, p. 76.
- Knecht 2016, p. 84.
- Peignot, p. 205; Humphreys, p. 42; EB, Louis XIII.
- Peignot, p. 260; EB, p. Louis (XVII).
- J.M.Thompson, The French Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1959, p. 315.
- Pierre-Dominique Cheynet, France: Members of the Executive Directory: 1791–1792, Archontology.org 2013, Accessed 19 February 2015.
- François Furet, The French Revolution: 1770–1814, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1996, p. 127.
- Thompson, p. 370.
- Pierre-Dominique Cheynet, France: Members of the Executive Directory: 1793–1795, Archontology.org 2013, Accessed 19 February 2015.
- Sylvia Neely, A Concise History of the French Revolution, NY, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008, pp. 225–227.
- Cheynet, Pierre-Dominique (2013). "France: Presidents of the Executive Directory: 1795-1799". Archontology.org. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
- Lefebvre & Soboul, p. 199.
- Vial, Charles-Éloi (2014). "Les trois actes d'abdication de Napoléon Ier". Napoleonica la Revue (in French). 19 (1): 3. doi:10.3917/napo.141.0003.
- Peignot, p. 261; EB, p. Napoleon I.
- Peignot, p. 262; EB, p. Louis XVIII.
- "France: Commission of Government: 1815 - Archontology". www.archontology.org. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- "Shortest reign of a monarch". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
- Pinoteau, Hervé (1982). "Notes de vexillologie royale française". Hidalguía (172–173). Madrid: 361–362.
- Castelot 1988, p. 454; Blanc 1848, p. 214.
- Brownell, p. 120; EB, p. Louis Philippe.
- Holoman 2004, p. 184; EB, Louis Philippe.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dupont de l'Eure, Jacques Charles". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 688.- Robertson, Priscilla Smith (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History. Princeton University Press. pp. 79–93. ISBN 0-691-00756-X. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
- Agulhon, Maurice (1983). The Republican Experiment, 1848–1852. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–71. ISBN 0521289882.
- "Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (1808–1873)" (in French). Official website of the French Presidency. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Trochu, Louis Jules". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 298.
- Guiral, Pierre (1986). Adolphe Thiers ou De la nécessité en politique (in French). Paris: Fayard. pp. 334–375. ISBN 2213018251.
- "Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877)" (in French). Official website of the French Presidency. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
- "Patrice de Mac-Mahon (1808–1893)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- "Jules Grévy (1807–1891)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- "Marie-François-Sadi Carnot (1837–1894)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- "Jean Casimir-Perier (1847–1907)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- "Félix Faure (1841–1899)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
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- "Armand Fallières (1841–1931)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
- "Raymond Poincaré (1860–1934)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
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- "René Coty (1882–1962)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
- "Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
- "Alain Poher (1909–1996)" (in French). Official website of the French Presidency. 14 January 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
- "Georges Pompidou (1911–1974)". Official website of the French Presidency. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
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- "Biographie officielle de François Hollande" [Official biography of François Hollande]. Official website of the French Presidency. 22 November 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
- "Biographie officielle de Emmanuel Macron" [Official biography of Emmanuel Macron]. Official website of the French Presidency. 22 November 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
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