Pashto_phonology
Pashto phonology
Phonology of the Pashto language
Amongst the Iranian languages, the phonology of Pashto is of middle complexity, but its morphology is very complex.[1]
| Labial | Dental/ alveolar |
Post- alveolar |
Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ŋ | ||||||||||||
| Plosive | p | b | t | d | ʈ | ɖ | k | ɡ | (q) | |||||||
| Affricate | t͡s | d͡z | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | ||||||||||||
| Fricative | (f) | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ʂ | ʐ | x | ɣ | h | ||||||
| Approximant | l | ɽ | j | w | ||||||||||||
| Rhotic | r | |||||||||||||||
[ʂkɑ.rɵ.ˈdə] was Visible
(Verb, 3rd Person, Singular, Masculine, Past Imperfective)Problems playing these files? See media help.
Problems playing these files? See media help.
The phonemes /q/, /f/ are only found in loanwords, and tend to be replaced by /k/, /p/ respectively. Some educated speakers may also have /ʔ, ʕ, ħ/ in Arabic loanwords.
- Voiceless stops and affricates /p, t, ʈ, t͡s, t͡ʃ, k/ are all unaspirated; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable, almost like English.
- /ʂ, ʐ/ are heard as palatal fricatives [ç, ʝ] [3] in the Northwestern dialect.[4]
- /ɽ/ is a voiced retroflex flap most of the time, but tends to be a lateral flap [𝼈] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap or approximant [ɻ] elsewhere.[5][6]
Dialects
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Dialectal allophones represented by ښ and ږ. The retroflex variants [ʂ, ʐ] are used in the Southwest dialects whereas the post-alveolar variants [ʃ, ʒ] are used in Southeast Dialects. The palatal variants [ç, ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the North Eastern dialects ښ and ږ merge with the velar [x, g].
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:
- (C1 C2 (C3)) (S1) V (S2) (C4 (C5))
Pashto syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:
- Onset
- First consonant (C1): Can be any consonant, including a liquid (/l, r/).
- Second consonant (C2): Can be any consonant.
- Third consonant (C3 ): Can be any consonant. (see #Consonant Clusters below)
- Nucleus
- Semivowel (S1)
- Vowel (V)
- Semivowel (S2)
- Coda
- First consonant (C4): Can be any consonant
- Second consonant (C5): Can be any consonant
Consonant clusters
Pashto has a lot of word-initial consonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination.[7]
Problems playing these files? See media help.
| Examples | |
|---|---|
| Two Consonant Clusters | /tl/, /kl/, /bl/, /ɣl/, /lm/, /nm/, /lw/, /sw/, /br/, /tr/, /ɣr/, /pr/, /dr/, /wr/, /kɽ/, /mɽ/, /wɽ/ /xp/, /pʃ/, /pʂ/, /xr/, /zb/, /zɽ/, /ʒb/, /d͡zm/, /md͡z/, /t͡sk/, /sk/, /sp/, /ʃp/, /ʂk/, /xk/, /ʃk/, /kʃ/, /kx/, /kʂ/, /ml/, /gr/, /gm/ and /ʐm/ etc. |
| Three Consonant Clusters | /sxw/, /xwɽ/, /xwl/, /nɣw/ etc. |
Examples
An edited[note 1] list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan:[8]
| IPA | Meaning | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| V | /o/ | was [dialect] | و |
| VC | /as/ | horse | اس |
| VCC | /art/ | loose | ارت |
| CV | /tə/ | you | ته |
| CVC | /ɖer/ | many, very | ډېر |
| CVCC | /luŋd/ | wet | لوند |
| CCV | /mlɑ/ | back | ملا |
| CCVC | /klak/ | hard | کلک |
| CCVCC | /ʒwəŋd/ | life | ژوند |
| CCCV | /xwlə/ | mouth | خوله |
| CCCVC | /ŋdror/ | sister-in-law | ندرور |
| CCCVCC | /ʃxwand/ | chewing of food | شخوند |
Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs.[9]
Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi, ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed.[11]
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Orthography of diphthongs
| Initial | Medial | Final | |
|---|---|---|---|
| aɪ | ای | َيـ | َی |
| əɪ | ۍ and ئ | ||
| oɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی |
| uɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی |
| aw | او | َو | َو |
| ɑi | آي | اي | ای |
| ɑw | آو | او | او |
Pashto has phonemic variable stress,[12] unique amongst Iranian languages.[7]
For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:
| Verb - Imperfective
(mostly Final Stress) |
Meaning | Verb - Perfective
(Initial Stress) |
Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| kenɑstə́ləm | I was sitting | kénɑstələm | I sat down |
| kenɑstə́m | I was sitting | kénɑstəm | I sat down |
| ba kenə́m | I shall be sitting | ba kénəm | I shall sit |
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Basic Word Stress
Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].
In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel.[13] !
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| رنځور | /ran.ˈd͡zur/ | sick [adj. masc.] |
| رنځوره | /ran.ˈd͡zur.a/ | sick [adj. fem.] |
| کورونه | /ko.ˈru.na/ | houses [noun. masc. plural] |
| ښځو | /ˈʂə.d͡zo/ | women [noun. fem. plural. oblique.] |
| لاندې | /ˈlɑn.de/ | below [adverb, circumposition] |
Masculine Words ending in "ə"
These have final stress generally.[14]
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| تېره | /te.ˈrə/ | sharp [adjective] |
| لېوه | /le.ˈwə/ | wolf [noun] |
Feminine Words ending in "o"
These end in a stress /o/.[15][16]
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| بيزو | /bi.ˈzo/ | monkey |
| پيشو | /pi.ˈʃo/ | cat |
| ورشو | /war.ˈʃo/ | meadow, pasture |
Wordings ending in Aleph
Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e. ا are stressed in the last syllable.
| Example | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| اشنا | /aʃ.ˈnɑ/ | familiar [masc. noun] |
| رڼا | /ra.ˈɳɑ/ | light [fem. noun] |
Exceptions
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Word meanings also change upon stress.
| Word | IPA: following general stress pattern [penultimate syllable] | Meaning 1 | IPA: following exception stress pattern | Meaning 2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| جوړه | /ˈd͡ʒo.ɽa/ | well | /d͡ʒo.ˈɽa/ | pair |
| اسپه | /ˈas.pa/ | horse [mare] | /as.ˈpa/ | spotted fever |
Questions
Problems playing these files? See media help.
WH-Questions [who, where, when etc] follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch.[17]
- تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
- [ tā́so ↗čérta kār kawə́ɪ↘ ]
Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.
- غنم يې ورېبل ؟
- [ ğanə́m ye wә́rebəl↗ ]
Contrastive Focus
When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.
- نه له د نه کشر يم
- [ na↘ lə ↗də nə kə́shər yə́m↘ ]
Consonants
This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions:[18]
| Dialect | ښ | ږ | څ | ځ | ژ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| South Western Dialects e.g. Kanadahar, Herat etc. | ʂ | ʐ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
| South Eastern Dialects e.g. Kasai Tribe, Quetta Region etc. | ʃ | ʒ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
| Middle Dialects - Waziri and Dzadrani | ɕ in Waziri ç in Dzadrani |
ʑ in Waziri ʝ in Dzadrani |
t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
| North Western Dialects e.g. Wardak, Central Ghilzai [19] | ç | ʝ | s | z | ʒ and z |
| North Eastern Dialects e.g. Yusapzai, Peshawar dialect etc. | x | ɡ | s | z | d͡ʒ |
Regional Variation
This diagram however does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as Northern dialects:[19]
Problems playing these files? See media help.
| Northern Dialects | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Wardak | Jalalabad | Bati Kot | |
| دوی | they | deɪ | ˈduwi | ˈduwi |
| راکړه | give [imperative of راکول] | ˈrɑ.ka | ˈrɑ.ka | ˈrɑ.kɽa |
| پوهېدل | to know [infinitive] | pi.je.ˈdəl | po.je.ˈdəl | po.ji.ˈdəl |
| شپږ | six | ʃpaʝ | ʃpag | ʃpiʒ |
| وريځ | cloud | wər.ˈjed͡z | wrez | wə.ˈred͡z |
| ښځه | woman | ˈçə.d͡za | ˈxə.za | |
| اوبه | water | o.ˈbə | u.ˈbə | o.ˈbə |
Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:
Alveolo-palatal fricative
Rozi Khan Burki claims that the Ormuri alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/ and /ʑ/ may also be present in Waziri.[20] But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology.[21][22][23]
Vowels
Waziri vowels
Problems playing these files? See media help.
The Vowel Shift
Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words.[24]
In Waziri dialect the [ɑ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ɔː] in Northern Waziri and [ɒː] in Southern Waziri.[25]
| Meaning | Standard Pashto | N.Wazirwola | S. Wazirwola | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ماسته | yougurt | /mɑs.ˈtə/ | /mɔːs.ˈtə/ | /mɒːs.ˈtə/ |
| پاڼه | leaf | /pɑ.ˈɳa/ | /ˈpɔː.ɳjɛː/ | /ˈpɒː.ɳjɛː/ |
In Waziri dialect the stressed [o] in Standard Pashto becomes [œː] and [ɛː]. The [o] in Standard Pashto may also become [jɛ] or [wɛː]. [25]
| Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola | |
|---|---|---|---|
| لور | sickle | /lor/ | /lœːr/ |
| وړه | flour | /o.ˈɽə/ | /ɛː.ˈɽə/ |
| اوږه | shoulder | /o.ˈɡa/ | /jɛ.ˈʒa/ |
| اوس | now | /os/ | /wɛːs/ |
In Waziri dialect the stressed [u] in standard Pashto becomes [iː]. [26]
| Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola | |
|---|---|---|---|
| موږ | we | /muɡ/ | /miːʒ/ |
| نوم | navel | /num/ | /niːm/ |
When [u] in begins a word in standard Pashto can become [jiː] or [w[ɛ]]
| Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola | |
|---|---|---|---|
| اوم | raw | /um/ | /jiːm/ |
| اوږه | garlic | /ˈu.ɡa/ | /ˈjiː.ʒa/ |
| اوده | asleep | /u.ˈdə/ | /wɜ.ˈdə/ |
Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel [æ].[27]
Apridi vowels
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel /ɵ/.[28]
Diphthongs in dialects
The diphthongs varies according to dialect.[29]
| Standard Pronunciation | Apridi | Yusupzai[30] | Waziri | Mohmand | Baniswola/Bannuchi[31] | Wanetsi |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| aɪ | ʌɪ ʌː | e | aɪ | ɑ | a | |
| ˈaɪ | ˈaɪ | ˈe | æɪ | ˈɑːi | ˈa | |
| ˈəɪ | ˈije | ˈəɪ | ˈəɪ
ˈe[32] |
ˈije | ˈi | |
| oɪ | waɪ | we | oːi œːi | eːi | ||
| uɪ | ui, wi | ˈojə | i | |||
| aw | ao | ow, aːw | ||||
| ɑi | ɑe | ˈɑːi | ||||
| ɑw | ɑo | oːw |
Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/,[33] but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example: مړۍ /ma.ˈɽəɪ/ "meal".[34]
Nasalisation of vowels
Problems playing these files? See media help.
As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat dialect and the Bansiwola dialect have nasalised vowels also.[35] It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.
These are indicated by the diactric mark / ̃ /.
| Standard Pronunciation | Marwat | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|
| بوی
buɪ |
بویں buĩ |
Smell |
- With some corrected IPA for words mentioned therein . Sources of correction: Kaye (1997), Zeeya Pashtoon (2009) and Qamosona.com
- Elfenbein (1997), p. 736.
- Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
- David (2014), p. 9.
- David (2014), p. 35.
- D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
- Herbert Penzl, 1965, A reader of Pashto, p 7
- Elfenbein (1997), p. 737.
- Khan, Muhammad Kamal (2020-04-08). Pashto Phonology: An Evaluation of the Relationship between Syllable Structure and Word Order. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1-5275-4925-8.
- David (2014), p. 11.
- Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 17.
- Elfenbein (1997), p. 751.
- Bečka, Jiří (1969). A Study in Pashto Stress. Academia.
- Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 25.
- David, Anne Boyle (2015-06-16). Descriptive Grammar of Bangla (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 56 and 109. ISBN 978-1-5015-0083-1.
- Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 56.
- David (2014), p. 68.
- "Pashto Intonation Patterns". Interspeech 2017.
- David (2014), pp. 31–34.
- "Dying Languages: Special Focus on Ormuri". Pakistan Journal of Public Administration. 6. No. 2. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740–749.
- David (2014), pp. 37–40.
- Jazab (2017), pp. 69–70.
- Miller, Corey (2014-05-12). "The Waziri Chain Shift". Journal of Persianate Studies. 7 (1): 125. doi:10.1163/18747167-12341267. ISSN 1874-7167.
- Elfenbein (1997), p. 748.
- Elfenbein (1997), p. 749.
- Elfenbein (1997), p. 746.
- Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740, 750–751.
- Elfenbein (1997), pp. 751–753.
- Rensch, Calvin Ross (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan: Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 79–146.
- Jazab (2017), pp. 64–65.
- Jazab (2020), p. 189.
- Jazab (2020), pp. 187–188.
- Jazab (2017), p. 65.
- Jazab (2017), pp. 60–61.
- Coyle, Dennis (2014-01-01). Placing Wardak Among Pashto Varieties (MA). University of North Dakota.
- David, Anne Boyle (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-303-2.
- Elfenbein, Josef (1997). "Pashto Phonology". In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.). Phonologies of Asia and Africa: Including the Caucasus. Eisenbrauns. pp. 733–760. ISBN 978-1-57506-019-4.
- Jazab, Yousaf Khan (2017). An Ethno-Linguistic Study of the Karlanri Varieties of Pashto. Pashto Academy, University of Peshawar. pp. 69–70. ISBN 9789694181004. OCLC 1001287442.
- Jazab, Yousaf Khan (2020-09-19). "A Diphthong Related Issue in Pashto Script and Its Solution". Pashto. 49 (659). ISSN 0555-8158.
- Tegey, Habibullah; Robson, Barbara (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.