Political_mutilation_in_Byzantine_culture

Political mutilation in Byzantine culture

Political mutilation in Byzantine culture

Criminal punishment used against rivals

Mutilation was a common method of punishment for criminals in the Byzantine Empire, but it also had a role in the empire's political life.[1] By blinding a rival, one would not only restrict his mobility but also make it almost impossible for him to lead an army into battle, then an important part of taking control of the empire. Castration was also used to eliminate potential opponents. In the Byzantine Empire, for a man to be castrated meant that he was no longer a man—half-dead, "life that was half death".[2] Castration also eliminated any chance of heirs being born to threaten either the emperor's or the emperor's children's place at the throne. Other mutilations were the severing of the nose (rhinotomy), or the amputating of limbs.

Depiction of the blinding of Leo Phokas the Elder after his unsuccessful rebellion against Romanos Lekapenos, from the Madrid Skylitzes chronicle

Rationale

The mutilation of political rivals by the emperor was deemed an effective way of side-lining from the line of succession a person who was seen as a threat. Castrated men were not seen as a threat, as no matter how much power they gained they could never take the throne, and numerous eunuchs were entrusted with high and confidential offices in the Byzantine court and administration. In Byzantine culture, the emperor was a reflection of heavenly authority. Since God was perfect, the emperor also had to be unblemished; any mutilation, especially facial wounds, would disqualify an individual from taking the throne.[3] An exception was Justinian II (ὁ Ῥινότμητος, "the slit-nosed"), who had his nose cut off when he was overthrown in 695 but was able to become emperor again in 705.[4]

History

Blinding as a punishment for political rivals and a recognized penalty for treachery was established in 705, although Phocas used it earlier during his rule as well, becoming common practice from Heraclius onwards.[5] Castration as a punishment for political rivals did not come into use until much later, becoming popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. An example is that of Basil Lekapenos, the illegitimate son of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos, who was castrated when young. He gained enough power to become parakoimomenos and effective prime minister for three successive emperors, but could not assume the throne himself.[6][7]

Cases of disfigurement

More information Victim, Date ...

Annotations

  1. [A 1]
    Lost his eyes sometime in the reign of Emperor Romanos III Argyros (November 15, 1028 – April 11, 1034)
  2. [A 2]
    Basil Lekapenos was castrated as an infant sometime during Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos's rule (920–944). However, there is no date on either the castration or on when he was born.

References

  1. [1]
    Rautman 2006, p. 30
  2. [2]
    Ringrose 2003, p. 62
  3. [3]
    Longworth 1997, p. 321
  4. [4]
    Ostrogorski 1957, p. 124
  5. [5]
    ODB, "Blinding" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 297–298
  6. [6]
    Norwich 1993, p. 167
  7. [7]
    Talbot & Sullivan 2005, p. 143
  8. [8]
    Nicol 1993, p. 124
  9. [9]
    Milman 1867, p. 370
  10. [10]
    Garland 2006, p. 9
  11. [11]
    Rochow 1994, p. 30
  12. [12]
    Mango & Scott 1997, p. 581
  13. [13]
    Mango & Scott 1997, p. 605
  14. [14]
    Nicephorus 1990, p. 73.
  15. [15]
    Kountoura-Galaki 1983, pp. 213–214
  16. [16]
    ODB, "Phokas" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1665–1666
  17. [17]
    Skoulatos 1980, pp. 75–77
  18. [18]
    Mango & Scott 1997, p. 533
  19. [19]
    Kiminas 2009, p. 44
  20. [20]
    Treadgold 1988, p. 224
  21. [21]
    Treadgold 1997, pp. 474–476
  22. [22]
    Savvides 1991, p. 77
  23. [23]
    Treadgold 1997, pp. 507–508
  24. [24]
    Garland 1999, p. 83
  25. [25]
    Mango & Scott 1997, p. 643
  26. [26]
    Garland 1999, p. 162
  27. [27]
    ODB, "Bryennios, Nikephoros" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 330–331
  28. [28]
    Skoulatos 1980, pp. 222–223
  29. [29]
    Holmes 2005, p. 222
  30. [30]
    Norwich 1993, p. 357
  31. [31]
    Theophanes 1982, p. 41.
  32. [32]
    Treadgold 1988, pp. 188–189
  33. [33]
    Hackel 2001, p. 71
  34. [34]
    PmbZ, Symbatios (#7169).
  35. [35]
    PmbZ, Georgios Peganes (#2263).

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