Proto-Dravidian_language
Proto-Dravidian language
Reconstructed common ancestor of the Dravidian languages
Proto-Dravidian is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Dravidian languages native to the Indian subcontinent.[1] It is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, and Proto-South Dravidian, although the date of diversification is still debated.[2]
| Proto-Dravidian | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Dravidian languages |
| Region | Eastern Iran, Pakistan, Western India and Deccan Plateau |
| Era | c. 4th–3rd m. BCE |
| Lower-order reconstructions |
|
As a proto-language, Proto-Dravidian is not itself attested in historical records. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started evolving into various branches around 3rd-millennium BCE.[3][full citation needed]
The origin and territory of the Proto-Dravidian speakers is uncertain, but some suggestions have been made based on the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian vocabulary. The reconstruction has been done on the basis of cognate words present in the different branches (Northern, Central and Southern) of the Dravidian language family.[4]
According to Fuller (2007), the botanical vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian is characteristic of the dry deciduous forests of central and peninsular India. For the Southern Dravidians, this region extends from Saurashtra and Central India to South India. It thus represents the general area in which the Dravidians were living before the separation of branches.[4]
According to Franklin Southworth (2005),[5] the Proto-Dravidian vocabulary is characteristic of a rural economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. However, there are some indications of a society more complex than a rural one:[6]
- Words for an upper storey and beam
- Metallurgy
- Trade
- Payment of dues (possibly taxes or contributions to religious ceremonies)
- Social stratification
This evidence is not sufficient to determine with certainty the territory of the Proto-Dravidians. These characteristics can be accommodated within multiple contemporary cultures, including:[6]
- 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of Elam and Mehrgarh and present-day western Rajasthan, Deccan and other parts of the peninsula.
- Early Indus Valley civilisation sites in Pakistan and later ones in the Saurashtra (Sorath) area of present-day Gujarat.
- Asko Parpola identifies Proto-North Dravidians with the Indus Valley civilization (IVC) and the Meluhha people mentioned in Sumerian records, and has suggested that the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian words mel(u)-akam ("highland country, high abode").[7]
- Loan words identified in Sumerian such as the words for ivory and sesame are considered to be derived from Proto-Dravidian and spread from IVC to Mesopotamia due to trade.[8][9]
Vowels
Proto-Dravidian contrasted between five short and long vowels: *a, *ā, *i, *ī, *u, *ū, *e, *ē, *o, *ō. The sequences *ai and *au are treated as *ay and *av (or *aw).[10]
Consonants
Proto-Dravidian has been reconstructed as having the following consonant phonemes:[11][12][13]
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasals | *m | *n | (*ṉ)[lower-alpha 1] | *ṇ | *ñ | ||
| Plosive | *p | *t | *ṯ | *ṭ | *c | *k | |
| Semivowel | *w | *y | *H | ||||
| Rhotic | *r | *ẓ[lower-alpha 2] | |||||
| Lateral | *l | *ḷ |
The singular alveolar plosive *ṯ developed into an alveolar trill /r/ in many of the South and South Central languages, it later merged with the tap in many of them; Tulu has /d͡ʒ, d̪, ɾ/ as reflexes, Manda-Kui made it /d͡ʒ/ and Hill-Maria Gondi made it /ʁ/. *ṯṯ and *nṯ became /r̥, nr/ in Konda and [tr, ndr] in many Tamil dialects. Apart from them, other languages did not rhotacize it, instead either preserving them or merging it with other sets of stops like dentals in Kannada, retroflexes in Telugu or palatals in Manda-Kui and some languages of Kerala.[14] Central made all alveolars dental which is one of the features distinguishing it from South Central branch and North made it /r, s/.[13][15] For example, Tamil āṟu, Tulu āji, Naiki sādi, Kui hāja; Tamil puṟṟu, Tulu puñca, Kannada huttu, Naiki puṭṭa, Konda puRi, Malto pute; Tamil onṟu, Tulu oñji, Pengo ronje, Brahui asi.
Velar nasal *ṅ occurred only before *k in Proto-Dravidian (as in many of its daughter languages). Therefore, it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam, Gondi, Konda and Pengo because the original sequence *ṅk was simplified to *ṅ or *ṅṅ.[16]
The glottal fricative *H has been proposed by Krishnamurti (2003) to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (Āytam) and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena.
P.S. Subrahmanyam reconstructs 6 nasals for PD compared to 4 by Krishnamurti, who also does not reconstruct a laryngeal.[17]
The Northern Dravidian languages Kurukh, Malto and Brahui cannot easily be derived from the traditional Proto-Dravidian phonological system. McAlpin (2003) proposes that they branched off from an earlier stage of Proto-Dravidian than the conventional reconstruction, which would apply only to the other languages. He suggests reconstructing a richer system of dorsal stop consonants:
| Early Proto-Dravidian | Late Proto-Dravidian (Proto-Non-North Dravidian) | Proto-Kurukh-Malto | Brahui |
|---|---|---|---|
| *c | *c | *c | |
| *kʲ | *c | *k | k |
| *k | *k | *k | k |
| *q | *k | *q | x k / _i(ː) |
Crop plants
Below are some crop plants that have been found in the Southern Neolithic complex of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, along with their Proto-Dravidian or Proto-South Dravidian reconstructions by Southworth (2005). In some cases, the proto-form glosses differ from the species identified from archaeological sites. For example, the two Southern Neolithic staple grasses Brachiaria ramosa and Setaria verticillata respectively correspond to the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms for Sorghum vulgare and Setaria italica as early Dravidian speakers shifted to millet species that were later introduced to South India.[5]
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| horsegram | Macrotyloma uniflorum | Late Proto-Dravidian | *koḷ | horsegram |
| green gram | Vigna radiata | Late Proto-Dravidian | *pac-Vt/Vl | green gram |
| black gram | Vigna cf. mungo; Vigna trilobata | Late Proto-Dravidian | *uẓ-untu, *min(t) | black gram |
| hyacinth bean | Lablab purpureus | Proto-Tamil | *ava-rai | Dolichos lablab |
| pigeonpea | Cajanus cajan | Late Proto-Dravidian | *tu-var | pigeonpea |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| browntop millet | Brachiaria ramosa | Late Proto-Dravidian | *conna-l | sorghum |
| bristly foxtail | Setaria verticillata | Late Proto-Dravidian | *kot-V | Setaria italica |
| sawa millet | Echinochloa cf. colona | |||
| yellow foxtail | Setaria pumila | |||
| little millet | Panicum sumatrense | |||
| kodo millet | Paspalum scrobiculatum | Proto-South Dravidian | *(v)ār/ar-Vk | pearl millet |
| millet | Pennisetum glaucum | Proto-South Dravidian | *kam-pu | bulrush millet |
| finger millet | Eleusine coracana | Proto-South Dravidian | *ira(k) | ragi |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| barley | Hordeum vulgare | |||
| wheat | Triticum | Late Proto-Dravidian? | *kūli | wheat |
| rice | Oryza sp. | Late Proto-Dravidian? | *(v)ar-iñci | rice |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| jujube | Zizyphus sp. | Late Proto-Dravidian | *irak- | jujube |
| fig | Ficus sp. | Late Proto-Dravidian | *cuv- | fig |
| java plum | cf. Syzygium cumini | Late Proto-Dravidian | *ñēr-al | jambu |
| globe cucumber | Cucumis cf. prophetarum | |||
| luffa | cf. Luffa cylindrica | Late Proto-Dravidian | *pīr | |
| flax | Linum usitatissimum | Proto-South Dravidian | *ak-V-ce | |
| cotton | Gossypium sp. | Proto-South Dravidian | *par-utti | |
| okra | Abelmoschus sp. | |||
| parenchyma fragments | Early Proto-Dravidian | *kic-ampu | ||
| date palm | Phoenix sp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *cīntu | |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| onion/garlic | Allium sp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *uḷḷi | |
| eggplant | Solanum sp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *vaẓ-Vt | |
| sesame | Sesamum indicum | Late Proto-Dravidian | *nū(v)- | sesame |
| sugarcane | Saccharum sp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *cet-Vkk | |
| hemp | Cannabis sp. | Late Proto-Dravidian ? | *boy-Vl |
Basic vocabulary
Basic vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian selected from Krishnamurti (2003):[18]
| gloss | Proto-Dravidian |
|---|---|
| one | *on-ṯu |
| one (adj.) | *ōr-/*or-V- |
| two | *īr/*ir-V |
| three (adj.) | *muH-/*mū- |
| four (adj.) | *nāl/*nal-V- |
| five (adj.) | *cay-m- |
| six (adj.) | *caṯ-V |
| seven (adj.) | *eẓ-V |
| eight (adj.) | *eṇ |
| nine, 9/10 | *toḷ-/*toṇ- |
| ten minus one | *on-patV |
| ten (adj.) | *paH- |
| head, hair, top | *tal-ay |
| cheek | *kap-Vḷ |
| eye | *kaṇ |
| eyeball | *kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V |
| ear | *kew-i |
| nose, beak | *mū-nk(k)u/-nc- |
| tooth | *pal |
| mouth[lower-alpha 1] | *wāy |
| hand, arm | *kay |
| leg, foot | *kāl |
| heart, kidney | *kuṇṭV |
| liver | *taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk |
| milk, breast | *pāl |
| bone | *el-V-mp/-nk |
| bone marrow | *mūḷ-V- |
| excrement | *piy/*pī |
| house | *il |
| husband | *maẓc-a- |
| man, husband | *māy-tt-/*mā-cc- |
| woman | *peṇ |
| name | *pin-cc-Vr |
| sky | *wān-am |
| sun | *en-ṯ- |
| sun | *pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu |
| moon, moonlight | *nel-a-nc/-ncc |
| month | *nel-V- |
| star | *cukk-V |
| star | *miHn |
| cloud | *muy-il |
| water | *nīr |
| river, stream | *yĀtu |
| lake | *kuḷ-am/-Vnc- |
| sea, ocean | *kaṭ-al |
| stone | *kal |
| wind | *waḷi |
| day | *nāḷ |
| night | *nāḷ/*naḷ-V- |
| year | *yAṇṭ-u |
| tree | *mar-am/-an |
| fruit, pod | *kāy |
| forest | *kā(-n), kā-ṭu |
| grass | *pul |
| thatched grass | *pīr |
| dog | *naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi |
| animal, beast, deer | *mā |
| deer | *kur-V-c- |
| tiger | *pul-i |
| rat | *el-i |
| snake | *pāmpu |
| meat | *iṯ-ay-cci |
| meat | *ū/*uy |
| oil, ghee | *ney |
| fish | *mīn |
| louse | *pēn |
| mosquito | *nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk- |
| wing | *ceṯ-ank-/-ankk- |
| black | *cir- |
| white | *weḷ/*weṇ |
| red | *kem |
| sweet (adj./n.) | *in- |
| sour | *puḷ- |
| bitter; bitterness | *kac (> kay) |
| to eat, drink | *uHṇ-/*ūṇ- |
| to eat | *tiHn- |
| to come | *waH-/*waH-r |
| to walk | *naṭ-a |
| to give | *ciy-/*cī- |
| to die | *caH- ~ *ceH- |
| to sleep | *kū-r- |
| to sleep | *tuñc- |
| to count | *eṇ |
- Andronov 2003, p. 299.
- Krishnamurti 2003, p. 492.
- History and Archaeology. vol. 1, no. 1–2. Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad. 1980. p. 234. OCLC 11579254.
- McIntosh 2008, p. 353.
- McIntosh 2008, p. 353-354.
- Parpola & Parpola 1975, p. 217-225.
- McIntosh 2008, p. 354.
- Baldi 1990, p. 342.
- Subrahmanyam 1983, p. 40.
- Krishnamurti 2003, p. [page needed].
Works cited
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- Ansumali Mukhopadhyay, Bahata (December 2021). "Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 8 (1): 193. doi:10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w. S2CID 236901972.
- Baldi, Philip (1990). Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology. Walter de Gruyter. p. 342. ISBN 3-11-011908-0.
- Fuller, Dorian Q. (2007). "Non-human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia". The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. pp. 393–443. doi:10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_18. ISBN 978-1-4020-5561-4.
- Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-43533-8.
- McAlpin, David W. (2003). "Velars, Uvulars and the Northern Dravidian hypothesis". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 123 (3): 521–546. doi:10.2307/3217749. JSTOR 3217749.
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- Subramoniam, V. I. (1968). "A Problem in the Reconstruction of the Proto Dravidian Nasal Phonemes". Pratidanam: Indian, Iranian, and Indo-European studies presented to Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper on his sixtieth birthday. pp. 344–358. doi:10.1515/9783112415306-047. ISBN 9783112415306.
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