First bases

During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the late 19th century, the first bases on the continent were established. In 1898, Carsten Borchgrevink, a Norwegian/British explorer, led the British Antarctic Expedition to Cape Adare, where he established the first Antarctic base on Ridley Beach. This expedition is often referred to now as the Southern Cross Expedition, after the expedition's ship name. Most of the staff were Norwegian, but the funds for the expedition were British, provided by Sir George Newnes. The 10 members of the expedition explored Robertson Bay to the west of Cape Adare by dog teams, and later, after being picked up by the ship at the base, went ashore on the Ross Ice Shelf for brief journeys. The expedition hut is still in good condition and visited frequently by tourists.

The hut was later occupied by Scott's Northern Party under the command of Victor Campbell for a year in 1911, after its attempt to explore the eastern end of the ice shelf discovered Roald Amundsen already ashore preparing for his assault on the South Pole.

In 1903, Dr William S. Bruce's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition set off to Antarctica, with one of its aims to establish a meteorological station in the area. After the expedition failed to find land, Bruce decided to head back to the Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there.^[4] The islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological station, and their relative proximity to the South American mainland allowed a permanent station to be established.^[5] Bruce instituted a comprehensive programme of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens.^[4]

The major task completed during this time was the construction of a stone building, christened "Omond House".^[6] This was to act as living accommodation for the parties that would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The building was constructed from local materials using the dry stone method, with a roof improvised from wood and canvas sheeting. The completed house was 20 feet by 20 feet square (6m × 6m), with two windows, fitted as quarters for six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."^[7]

Bruce later offered to Argentina the transfer of the station and instruments on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.^[8] Bruce informed the British officer William Haggard of his intentions in December 1903, and Haggard ratified the terms of Bruce's proposition.^[9]

The Scotia sailed back for Laurie Island on 14 January 1904 carrying on board Argentinean officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on the South Orkney Islands.

WWII and postwar expansion

Little happened for the following forty years until the Second World War, when the British launched Operation Tabarin in 1943, to establish a presence on the continent. The chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.

Prior to the start of the war, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim (New Swabia).^[10] Led by Lieutenant James Marr, the 14-strong team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and HMS Fitzroy, on Saturday, January 29, 1944. Marr had accompanied the British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921–22.

Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land. A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. These were the first permanent bases to be constructed on the Antarctic mainland.^[11]

The United States starting under the leadership of Admiral Richard E. Byrd constructed a series of five bases near the Bay of Whales named Little America between 1929 and 1958. All of them have now drifted off to sea on icebergs.

A massive expansion in international activity followed the war. Chile organized its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48. Among other accomplishments, it brought the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla to personally inaugurate one of its bases, thereby becoming the first head of state to set foot on the continent.^[12] Signy Research Station (UK) was established in 1947, Australia's Mawson Station in 1954, Dumont d'Urville Station was the first French station in 1956. In that same year, the United States built McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Soviet Union built Mirny Station.

In 2023 a research report from an Australian team^[13] found that the pollution left by international research stations were at par with some of the busiest ports in the world.

The Antarctic Treaty

The Antarctic Treaty, first signed on 1 December 1959 by 12 countries, stated that scientific investigations in research stations in Antarctica can continue, but all observations must be shared.^[14] The Antarctic Treaty also stated that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes and any exploitation of the continent such as mining is forbidden, thus scientific research is the only activity that may be performed on Antarctica.^[15] As more countries established research stations on Antarctica, the number of signatories of the treaty increased, with 56 signatories as of 2023, 55 of whom utilize their rights and operate research stations in Antarctica.^[14] 7 of the signatories also laid claims on Antarctica (and 4 reserved their rights to do so), with the intention of expanding research in those territories in the future. However, research facilities have also been established by countries in the claimed area of other countries.

Subantarctic stations

More information Name, Location ...

Name	Location	Country	Administration	Year est.	Summer pop.	Winter pop.	UTC offset	Mean annual temp. (°C)
Alfred Faure	Île de la Possession	France	French Polar Institute	1963	45	24	+5	5.3
Bird[21]	Bird Island	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Survey	1957	10	4	−2	−0.2
Campbell	Campbell Island	New Zealand	MetService	1946	0	0	+12[lower-alpha 1]	7.0
Gough	Gough Island	South Africa	South African Weather Service	1956	10	10	0	11.5
King Edward Point[22]	King Edward Point	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Survey	1950	22	12	−2	1.6
Macquarie	Macquarie Island	Australia	Australian Antarctic Division	1948	40	16	+10[lower-alpha 1]	4.9
Marion	Prince Edward Islands	South Africa	South African National Antarctic Programme	1948	18	18	+3	5.5
Norvegia	Bouvet Island	Norway	Norwegian Polar Institute	1927	6	0		-1
Port-aux-Français	Kerguelen Islands	France	French Polar Institute	1963	120	45	+5	5.2

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