Roman_watermill

List of ancient watermills

List of ancient watermills

Add article description

This list of ancient watermills presents an overview of water-powered grain-mills and industrial mills in classical antiquity from their Hellenistic beginnings through the Roman imperial period.

For an overview of early medieval watermills from 500 to 1000 AD, see List of early medieval watermills.
The Barbegal mill, located on a steep slope in southern France, is considered the biggest ancient mill complex. Its capacity was sufficient to feed the whole nearby city of Arles.[1]
Scheme of a water-driven Roman sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor. The 3rd century mill is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[2]

The watermill is the earliest instance of a machine harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour (apart from the sail).[3] As such, it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth.[4]

The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[5] In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel.[6] Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,[7] crushing ore,[8] sawing stones[9] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.[10]

An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought.[11] The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves.[12] Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained a typically rural phenomenon, it also rose in importance in the urban environment.[13]

The data below spans the period until ca. 500 AD. The vast majority dates to Roman times.

Earliest evidence

Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here.

More information Date, Water-powered mill types ...
  • Undershot water wheel
    Undershot water wheel
  • Breastshot water wheel
    Breastshot water wheel
  • Overshot water wheel
    Overshot water wheel

Written sources

In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.

More information Reference, Location ...

Graphical representations

This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc.

More information Place (or object), Country ...

Archaeological finds

Watermill sites

Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period.

More information Site, Country ...

Millstones

The following list comprises stray finds of ancient millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.[97]

More information Site, Country ...

Water wheels and other components

Although more rare than the massive millstones, finds of wooden and iron parts of the mill machinery can also point to the existence of ancient watermills.[102] Large stone mortars have been found at many mines; their deformations suggest automated crushing mills worked by water wheels.[103]

More information Site, Country ...

References

  1. [1]
    Greene 2000, p. 39
  2. [2]
    Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161
  3. [3]
    Wilson 2002, p. 9
  4. [4]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 371
  5. [5]
    Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f.; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11; Wilson 2002, pp. 7f.
  6. [6]
    Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15
  7. [7]
    Wikander 1985, p. 158; Wikander 2000b, p. 403; Wilson 2002, p. 16
  8. [8]
    Wikander 2000b, p. 407
  9. [9]
    Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
  10. [10]
    Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f.
  11. [11]
    Wikander 1985, pp. 151–154; Wikander 2000a, pp. 370–373; Wilson 2002, pp. 9–17; Brun 2006, pp. 7–9
  12. [12]
    Wikander 2000a, pp. 397–400
  13. [13]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 379
  14. [14]
    Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000a, p. 396
  15. [15]
    Wikander 2000a, pp. 373f.; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 12
  16. [16]
    Wikander 2000b, p. 402
  17. [17]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 375; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 13
  18. [18]
    Wikander 2000b, p. 406
  19. [19]
    Wikander 1985, pp. 154–162; Wilson 2002, p. 11
  20. [20]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 375
  21. [21]
    Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 154
  22. [22]
    Wilson 1995, pp. 507f.; Wikander 2000a, p. 377; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 13
  23. [23]
    Brun & Leguilloux 2014, pp. 160–170; Wilson 2020, p. 171
  24. [24]
    Wilson 2001
  25. [25]
    Wikander 2000b, pp. 404f.
  26. [26]
    Wilson 2001, p. 235
  27. [27]
    Wikander 1985, p. 163, fn. 109; Wikander 2000a, p. 400
  28. [28]
    Wikander 1985, p. 160
  29. [29]
    Wikander 1985, p. 169, fn. 41
  30. [30]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 398
  31. [31]
    Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000a, p. 398
  32. [32]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 400, fn. 123
  33. [33]
    Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 82; Brun 2006, p. 105
  34. [34]
    Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 82
  35. [35]
    Wikander 2000b, p. 405
  36. [36]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 399, fn. 121
  37. [37]
    Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 69
  38. [38]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 399
  39. [39]
    Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 143–146
  40. [40]
    Spain 2008, p. 82
  41. [41]
    Wikander 1985, p. 158
  42. [42]
    Wikander 2000b, p. 403
  43. [43]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 396
  44. [44]
    Wikander 1985, p. 161; Wikander 2000a, p. 397, fn. 104
  45. [45]
    Wikander 1985, p. 170, fn. 45
  46. [46]
    Wikander 2000a, pp. 373f.
  47. [47]
    Wikander 1985, p. 170, fn. 61; Wikander 2000a, p. 375
  48. [48]
    Wikander 1985, p. 159
  49. [49]
    Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 77; Wikander 2000a, pp. 384f.
  50. [50]
    Wilson 1995, pp. 507f.
  51. [51]
    Spain 1984, pp. 111–112
  52. [52]
    Spain 2008, pp. 35–36
  53. [53]
    Spain 2008, pp. 25–27
  54. [54]
    Spain 2008, pp. 43–46
  55. [55]
    Spain 1984b, pp. 143–180
  56. [56]
    Spain 2008, pp. 33–35
  57. [57]
    Spain 2008, pp. 28–29
  58. [58]
    Spain 1984, pp. 115–116
  59. [59]
    Spain 2008, pp. 36–37
  60. [60]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 397, fn. 106
  61. [61]
    Spain 2008, pp. 14–25
  62. [62]
    Wilson 2002, p. 11
  63. [63]
    Amouric et al. 2000
  64. [64]
    Wikander 1985, pp. 154–162
  65. [65]
    Spain 2008, pp. 29–31
  66. [66]
    Spain 2008, pp. 21–22
  67. [67]
    Brun 2006, p. 113
  68. [68]
    Brun 2006, pp. 107, 113
  69. [69]
    Brun 2006, pp. 113
  70. [70]
    Spain 2008, pp. 46–48
  71. [71]
    Brun & Borréani 1998, p. 315; Brun 2006, p. 112
  72. [72]
    Brun 2006, pp. 113, 116
  73. [73]
    Brun 2006, pp. 107, 116
  74. [74]
    Spain 2008, pp. 51
  75. [75]
    Wikander 2014, p. 207
  76. [76]
    Spain 2008, pp. 40–41
  77. [77]
    Geilenbrügge 2010, p. 4; Geilenbrügge & Schürmann 2010; Images: 1 and 2
  78. [78]
    Spain 2008, pp. 61–63
  79. [79]
    Spain 2008, pp. 41f.; Wikander 2014, p. 207
  80. [80]
    Spain 2008, pp. 55–59
  81. [81]
    Ad, Saʿid & Frankel 2005; Spain 2008, pp. 59–61
  82. [82]
    Spain 2008, pp. 42f.
  83. [83]
    Spain 2008, pp. 22–24
  84. [84]
    Spain 2008, pp. 51–55
  85. [85]
    Spain 2008, pp. 37–40
  86. [86]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 393
  87. [87]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 374
  88. [88]
    Spain 2008, pp. 64–67
  89. [89]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 385
  90. [90]
    Wilson 2002, p. 16; Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149–151
  91. [91]
    Spain 2008, pp. 24–25
  92. [92]
    Spain 2008, pp. 31–32
  93. [93]
    Brun 2006, pp. 111f.
  94. [94]
    Spain 2008, pp. 59
  95. [95]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 394, fn. 95
  96. [96]
    Brun 2006, pp. 105, 107
  97. [97]
    Wikander 2000a, p. 372
  98. [98]
    Wikander 1985, pp. 163–165
  99. [99]
    Wilson 2002, pp. 10
  100. [100]
    Czysz 1994, p. 152
  101. [101]
    Brun 2006, pp. 107, 110
  102. [102]
    Wikander 1985, p. 165
  103. [103]
    Burnham 1997, pp. 332–336
  104. [104]
    Champagne, Ferdière & Rialland 1997; Brun 2006, p. 112
  105. [105]
    Spain 2008, pp. 49–50

Notes

  1. [A 1]
    Character as watermill disputed (Wilson 1995, p. 375)

Sources

Watermill lists which summarize the rapidly developing state of research are provided by Wikander 1985 and Brun 2006, with additions by Wilson 1995 and 2002. Spain 2008 undertakes a technical analysis of around thirty known ancient mill sites.

  • Ad, Uzi; Saʿid, ʿAbd al-Salam; Frankel, Rafael (2005), "Water-mills with Pompeian-type Millstones at Nahal Tanninim", Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 156–171
  • Amouric, Henri; Thernot, Robert; Vacca-Goutouli, Mireille; Bruneton, Hélène (2000), "Un moulin à turbine de la fin de l'Antiquité. La Calade du Castellet (Fontvieille)", in Leveau, Philippe; Saquet, J. P. (eds.), Milieu et sociétés dans la Vallée des Baux. Études présentées au colloque de Mouriès, Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise (Supplement), vol. 31, Montpellier: Association de la Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise, pp. 261–274, ISBN 978-2-84269-369-5
  • Brun, Jean-Pierre (2006), "L'energie hydraulique durant l'Empire romain: quel impact sur l'economie agricole?", in Lo Cascio, Elio (ed.), Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano: atti degli Incontri capresi di storia dell'economia antica (Capri 13-16 Aprile 2003), Bari: Edipuglia, pp. 101–130, ISBN 978-88-7228-405-6
  • Brun, Jean-Pierre; Borréani, Marc (1998), "Deux moulins hydrauliques du Haut-Empire romain en Narbonnaise: Villae des Mesclans à La Crau et de Saint-Pierre/Les Laurons aux Arcs (Var)", Gallia, vol. 55, pp. 279–326
  • Brun, Jean-Pierre; Leguilloux, Martine Leguilloux (2014), "Les installations artisanales romaines de Saepinum. Tannerie et moulin hydraulique", Collection du Centre Jean Bérard 43, Archéologie de l’artisanat antique 7, Naples: Centre Jean Bérard, ISSN 1590-3869
  • Burnham, Barry C. (1997), "Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: The Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint", Britannia, vol. 28, pp. 325–336, doi:10.2307/526771
  • Champagne, Frédéric; Ferdière, Alain; Rialland, Yannick (1997), "Re-découverte d'un moulin à eau augustéen sur l'Yèvre (Cher)", Revue archéologique du Centre de la France, vol. 36, pp. 157–160
  • Czysz, Wolfgang (1994), "Eine bajuwarische Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing", Antike Welt, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 152–154
  • Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, vol. 52, pp. 1–17, doi:10.2307/3643076, JSTOR 3643076
  • Geilenbrügge, Udo (2010), Älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas entdeckt (PDF), Archäologie in Deutschland, vol. 2010/1, Stuttgart: Theiss, p. 4, ISSN 0176-8522
  • Geilenbrügge, Udo; Schürmann, Wilhelm (2010), "Die älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas im Indetal bei Altdorf?", in Kunow, Jürgen (ed.), Archäologie im Rheinland 2009, Archäologie im Rheinland, Stuttgart: Theiss, pp. 62–64, ISBN 978-3-8062-2383-5
  • Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151
  • Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 20, pp. 138–163
  • Spain, Robert (1984), "Romano-British Watermills", Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 100, Kent Archaeological Society, pp. 101–128
  • Spain, Robert (1984b), "The Second-Century Romano-British watermill at Ickham, Kent", History of Technology, vol. 9, pp. 143–180
  • Spain, Robert (2008), The Power and Performance of Roman Water-mills. Hydro-mechanical Analysis of Vertical-wheeled Water-mills, British Archaeological Reports. International Series, vol. 1786, Oxford: Archaeopress, ISBN 978-1-4073-0217-1
  • Wikander, Örjan (1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", History of Technology, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
  • Wikander, Örjan (2000a), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
  • Wikander, Örjan (2000b), "Industrial Applications of Water-Power", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 401–410, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
  • Wikander, Örjan (2014), "Early Water-mills East of the Rhine", in Karlsson, Lars; Carlsson, Susanne; Kullberg, Jesper (eds.), ΛΑΒΡΥΣ. Studies presented to Pontus Hellström, Boreas. Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations, vol. 35, Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet, pp. 205–219, ISBN 978-91-554-8831-4
  • Wilson, Andrew (1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
  • Wilson, Andrew (2001), "Water-Mills at Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus 18.8.11" (PDF), The Classical Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 231–236, doi:10.1093/cq/51.1.231
  • Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 92, pp. 1–32, doi:10.2307/3184857, JSTOR 3184857
  • Wilson, Andrew (2020), "Roman Water-Power. Chronological Trends and Geographical Spread", in Erdkamp, Paul; Verboven, Koenraad; Zuiderhoek, Arjan (eds.), Capital, Investment, and Innovation in the Roman World, Oxford University Press, pp. 147–194, ISBN 978-0-19-884184-5

Further reading

Media related to Roman mills at Wikimedia Commons
Share this article:

This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Roman_watermill, and is written by contributors. Text is available under a CC BY-SA 4.0 International License; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.