Origin

There are a number of conflicting theories about the origin of the Kingdom of Takrur. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley.^{[4][5][6]: 56} John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and "Negro agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer".^[7] The Serer language and religion (A ƭat Roog) were prevalent and made up an important part of the Kingdom's culture.^[1][2][3] The outsiders may, however, have been Soninke rather than Berber, and the native population may have already spoken Fula.^[8] Regardless, the region was an ethnic melting pot, although the Fula would eventually subsume much of the Serer, Wolof, Soninke, Malinke, and Berber elements.^[6]: 55

Early Dynasties

The founding dynasty was called Dya'ogo. Traditional historians disagree on their origin and ethnic background (assuming a relationship can be drawn at all with ethnic labels as understood today). They were blacksmith-kings, and supposedly introduced iron-working and ore extraction to the region.^[6]: 27 They were succeeded by the Serer Tonjon dynasty.^{[6]: 65, 70} Although Kane placed the "Tonjon" (whom he assigned to the Serer) after the Manna dynasty,^{[6]: 65, 70} most historians including Bruno Chavane, Charles Becker, Victor Martin, Henry Gravrand, Willie F. Page, John D. Fage, Thomas Streissguth, Godfrey Mwakikagile, etc., placed "the Serer exodus" from Takrur in the 11th century following their persecution by the Muslims–when Islam and Sharia was introduced to the Kingdom by the Manna.^{[9][10][11][12][13]}

The Serer lamanic class, whose role also included the safeguarding of Serer spirituality, are believed to have been at the forefront of resisting Islamization, partly to preserve their religion, but also their power and wealth as landowners. It was common for early Arab writers such as Al Bakri to refer to "non-believers" of Islam in their works as lamlam, lemlem, or damdam which scholars like Ibrahima Thiaw and Abdoulaye Bara Diop believe to be a corruption of the Serer title lamaan.^{[14] [15][16]}

Manna

The Soninke Sumaare clan under Mamadu Sumaare, originally from Wagadu or the Kingdom of Diarra, conquered Takrur in 826, establishing the Manna dynasty.^{[6]: 64 [8]}

Takrur was first mentioned in Arab sources in the 10th century.^[17] The king Rabis may be the Rai bin Rai cited as an ally of the Almoravids and king of the Sudan who troops fought in al-Andalus.^[6]: 65 In 1035 king War Jabi introduced Sharia law, becoming the first ruler to officially adopt Islamic orthodoxy in the Sahel.^[18] In 1056 his son Laba fought alongside Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni at the battle of Tabfarilla.^[6]: 65

During this period Takrur held a dominant position in regional trade, controlling a series of trading posts and cities linking the salt mines of Awlil on the coast north of the mouth of the Senegal to the interior.^[19]

The last Manna king, Cengaan Sumaare, is remembered as a bloodthirsty tyrant. Despite Takrur's history of alliance with the Almoravids, he was overthrown by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, who founded the Berber Laam Taga dynasty in 1082. They only lasted 40 years, however, before the Fula Laam Termess defeated them in 1122. Under this new dynasty, the ethnic makeaup of Futa Toro became definitively Fula.^{[6]: 64–6} During the 13th century, a civil war broke out between the Muslim Fula and the Serer, who followed their traditional religion. Rather than convert, they migrated southwest first to the Ferlo Desert and then to Siin and Saloum.^{[18][6]: 76}

Vassalage and Decline

The fall of Ghana precipitated an era of political change in the region. The Susu carved out the sizeable, though short-lived, empire that made Takrur a vassal. They were followed by the Mali Empire, which did the same.^[6]: 72

Tekrur was conquered by the Jolof emperor Tyukuli N'Diklam in the 15th century, who split the region between multiple farba (governors).^{[20][6]: 72} By 1506, however, the Burba's authority was weakening, and the farba fell to fighting amongst themselves.^[6]: 67 Koli Tengella, a Fula warlord native to Takrur but coming from Futa Jallon, conquered the area in 1521 and set up the Denanke dynasty. This would last until 1776 when the Fouta Revolution, led by Muslim clerics, took over the kingdom and the house of Denanke was brought down.^[21]

Timeline

Dates and sequencing from Oumar Kane. Much of it is sourced from oral histories, and details may be disputed by other sources or authors.^[6]: 67