The Second Temple period in Jewish history began with the end of the Babylonian captivity and the Persian conquest of the Near East in 539 BCE. The Second Temple was then built, and finished around 516 BCE. The conquests of Macedonia under Alexander the Great in 332 BCE saw Judea and the Near East placed under Greek influence during the Hellenistic period; Hellenistic Judaism blended both Greek and Jewish traditions. The Maccabean Revolt of 167–142 BCE was fight a first for Judean autonomy against a suppression of traditional Judaism, and later acquired outright independence under the rule of the Hasmonean family in an independent Hasmonean kingdom. The Hasmoneans would rule until 63 BCE, when they were reduced to client king status as Roman puppets; that too would end in 37 BCE, with King Herod the Great taking control, leading to the Herodian dynasty. Herod's death would lead to both the Herodian Tetrarchy where smaller regions ruled by members of his family, as well as direct Roman control by the governors of Roman Judea. The period would come to an end with the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–73 CE. Jerusalem was conquered in 70 CE, and the Second Temple was destroyed.

This timeline focuses both on political events in Judea and the surrounding regions, as well as issues related to wider diaspora Judaism practiced outside Judea. Many of the dates in ancient sources are given in terms of the Seleucid era (SE) and the Ancient Macedonian calendar, which do not always map cleanly to Julian calendar dates, leading to a certain degree of uncertainty.

539 BCE

• Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon. The Neo-Babylonian Empire falls and is replaced by the First Persian Empire.^[1]
• Establishment of the Province of Yehud (Judah), eventually part of the satrapy of Eber-Nari.^[1]

538 BCE

• Traditional date of the Edict of Cyrus, a decree allowing and encouraging Jews of the Babylonian captivity to return to Judea. Regardless of whether such an edict directly addressing the Jews existed, Persian religious policy does allow for local religions to practice undisturbed as long as they do not foment rebellion, including Judaism.^[1]
• Possible mission of Sheshbazzar, an enigmatic figure described in Ezra 1. He is credited with returning the temple vessels to Jerusalem, and possibly also being a governor who laid the foundations for the temple in a quoted document in Ezra 5.^[2]

538–332 BCE

• At unknown points during the Persian period, various books are written or finalized (if based on earlier, lost material). These include the Book of Malachi, the Books of Chronicles, and possibly the Book of Jonah, the Book of Ruth, and the Song of Songs. Some sections of the Book of Isaiah, notably the third part (chapters 56–66), are probably written. The first two chapters of the Book of Joel are probably written, and possibly the whole book, although the date of the last two chapters is contested.^[3]
• The proposed priestly source (P) in the documentary hypothesis makes additions and revisions to the five books of the Torah (Pentateuch), with knowledge of the post-exilic period.^[3]
• The setting of the Book of Esther.^[3]

537–520 BCE

• Zerubbabel is appointed governor of Yehud. He is said to have led a group of Jewish returnees from Babylon to Yehud. Provisional work on a new temple starts, but is quickly stopped.^[4]

525 BCE

• Persian conquest of Egypt: Cambyses expands the Persian Empire further beyond Yehud.^[5]

522–486 BCE

• Reign of Darius I as shahnashah.^[5]

520–516 BCE

• Building of the new temple starts in earnest, creating the Second Temple, partially due to the goading of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah.^[4]
• Setting of the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah.^[6]
• Joshua, son of Jeozadak, of the Zadokite line, becomes High Priest of the newly built Temple.^[4]

465–424 BCE

• Reign of Artaxerxes I.^[7]

458–457 BCE

• Mission of Ezra the Scribe, who takes another group of returnees from Babylon to Judea with the approval of King Artaxerxes in the seventh year of his reign (if this reference is to Artaxerxes I).^[8]

445–433 BCE

• Mission of Nehemiah, a member of Artaxerxes's administration who requests leave to go to Judah and rebuild it, possibly after some unrecorded disaster in Jerusalem at a point prior. He embarks upon a campaign to purge Judea of foreign influence and builds a wall around Jerusalem.^[9]

430–350 BCE

• According to Josephus, at some point in this period, an incident occurs where High Priest Johanan murders his brother Jesus inside the Temple; general Bagoses (possibly the same person as Bagoas, if a later date is assumed?) punishes the crime and imposes a seven-year tribute on Judea.^[10]

404–359 BCE

• Reign of Artaxerxes II.^[11]

397 BCE

• The alternative proposed date of the mission of Ezra the Scribe (if he served under Artaxerxes II).^[8]

400–300 BCE

• Ezra–Nehemiah (Book of Ezra and Book of Nehemiah) is written. An early Hebrew form of 1 Esdras, an alternative account, is also possibly created.^[12][8]

359–338 BCE

• Reign of Artaxerxes III.^[13]

332 BCE

• Alexander the Great conquers Syro-Palestine.^[14][15]
• According to a Jewish tradition, Alexander visits Jerusalem, corresponds with the Jewish high priest, praises Judaism, and makes a sacrifice to the God of Israel. The tradition is considered legendary and not historical, however.^[16][17]

323–301 BCE

• Alexander the Great dies. His generals partition the Macedonian empire between them.^[18]
• Wars of the Diadochi: Judea is contested by Alexander's feuding generals.^[19]
• Little is known of affairs of Judea in this period, but it was fought over and suffered. General Ptolemy's forces triumph at the nearby Battle of Gaza (312 BCE), but are forced to retreat from the Antigonid prince Demetrius after a loss in Syria, and burn many cities in the Palestine region in the retreat (Joppa, Acre, Gaza), giving the region back to the Antigonids. Ptolemy retakes most of the Palestine region without a fight in 302–301 BCE. The region is awarded to Seleucus after a settlement among the victors at the Battle of Ipsus, but Ptolemy ignores the settlement and refuses to hand it over.^[19]
• There is a migration of Jews from Palestine to Egypt amid the chaos, possibly prompted by Ptolemy I.^[18]

301–200 BCE

• Coele-Syria, including Judea, is ruled by Ptolemaic Egypt. The Seleucid Empire, claiming that the region was awarded to Seleucus, attempts to conquer the region several times during the Syrian Wars.^[14]
• Book of Tobit is probably written. It is possible it dates from even earlier, however.^[20]
• The Book of Ecclesiastes (Qohelet) and the initial sections of the Book of Enoch are written at some point in this period.^[21][22]
• The Aramaic Levi Document, a Jewish predecessor of the Christian Testament of Levi, is possibly written.^[22]
• Origin of the Septuagint: During this century, important Jewish writings begin to be translated into Greek for Hellenistic Jews whose first language is Greek.^[23]
• The Tobiad clan becomes wealthy as tax agents for the Ptolemies.^[24]

259 BCE

• Zenon of Kaunos, a Ptolemaic minister of finance, tours Palestine region; his compiled documents ("Zenon papyri") are later discovered in the 20th century, and are some of the rare surviving material on Jews in the region.^[25][26]

221–204 BCE

• Reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator in Egypt. The setting of the book 3 Maccabees, which describes a persecution of Egyptian Jews by Philopator after he returned from the Battle of Raphia (217 BCE); the historicity of such an event is highly suspect, however, and it is described nowhere else. However, another source, the "Raphia Decree", indicates Ptolemy IV did go on a tour of shrines in the Syro-Palestine region, and he may well have stopped at Jerusalem's Second Temple.^[27][28][29]

202–199 BCE

• Fifth Syrian War. The region changes hands several times as Ptolemaic and Seleucid forces battle for control of Coele-Syria.^[30][31]

200 BCE

• At the Battle of Panium (Paneas), the Seleucid army crushingly defeats the Ptolemaic army.^[32]
• Antiochus III and the Seleucid army conquers Jerusalem, defeating the Ptolemaic garrison left by Scopas.^[14][32]
• Antiochus III makes a decree guaranteeing privileges allowed to Jerusalem's elites and Temple personnel.^[14][32]

200–100 BCE

• The Letter of Aristeas is written.^[33]

c. 190 BCE

• Simon II serves as High Priest.^[14]
• Book of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) by Jesus ben Sira is written.^[14][34][35]

187–175 BCE

• Seleucus IV Philopator rules as king. At some point, his minister Heliodorus attempts to tax the Second Temple for money after hearing rumors of its wealth, but fails.^[14][36]
• Onias III serves as High Priest.^[14]

September 175 BCE

• Antiochus IV Epiphanes ascends to Seleucid throne.^[37][38]
• Shortly after, Onias III is replaced by his brother Jason as High Priest by Antiochus IV. He obtains permission to found a Hellenistic community in Jerusalem.^[14][39]

c. 174–172 BCE

• Antiochus IV visits Jerusalem, where he receives an enthusiastic welcome from Jason.^[14][40]

c. 173–172 BCE

• Menelaus appointed High Priest. Former High Priest Jason flees into exile (possibly to Tobiad territory?).^[14]

170 BCE

• Former High Priest Onias III is killed at Daphne, near Antioch.^[41]

170–169 BCE

• Sixth Syrian War: Antiochus IV Epiphanes defeats Ptolemaic Egypt in campaign.^[40]

168 BCE

• Battle of Pydna: Roman troops under Aemilius Paullus break the power of the Macedonians and Antigonid dynasty, further increasing Roman sway and influence in the Eastern Mediterranean.^[37]
• Sixth Syrian War: Antiochus Epiphanes returns to Egypt for a second campaign, but leaves in July 168 BCE after a Roman show of support for the Ptolemies.^[37][42]
• Antiochus IV plunders the Second Temple for treasure with the aid of High Priest Menelaus. (Sources conflict for whether this was after the first 169 BCE expedition or the second 168 BCE expedition.)^[43][42]

168–167 BCE

• Unrest in Jerusalem. Jason attempts to oust Menelaus for the position of High Priest. Possibly, rebels take the city. Jerusalem is attacked by the Seleucid army; many Jerusalemites are killed or enslaved; the Acra citadel is raised and fortified in Jerusalem, and Menelaus is restored to his position. Antiochus IV issues several decrees aimed at curtailing the practice of traditional Judaism, beginning a period of persecution.^[44]

c. 143–141 BCE

• The Acra citadel in Jerusalem, a stronghold of Greek influence, falls to the nascent Hasmonean state.^[14]
• The fortress of Gezer falls to the Hasmoneans.^[72]
• Simon Thassi appointed "High Priest and Leader forever" in 170 SE. He takes the title of ethnarch (prince, governor) of Judea in addition to the High Priesthood.^[14]

141–100 BCE

• The three Jewish sects described by Josephus—the Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes—develop their ideologies and become well-formed.^[73]

140 BCE

• King Demetrius II is taken prisoner in a campaign against the Parthian Empire to the east. Leadership of the Seleucid Empire is contested between Diodotus Tryphon and Antiochus VII Sidetes.^[14]

139 BCE

• According to Valerius Maximus, Cornelius Scipio Hispanus expels Jews from the city of Rome on the charge of being astrologers and overturns their "private altars". Either the expulsion was not complete, Jews quickly return, or both, however.^[74]

c. 138 BCE

• A Seleucid army under a commander named Cendebeus invades Judea, but is repulsed.^[72]

Shebat (February), 135 or 134 BCE (177 SE)

• Death of Simon Thassi and two of his sons at the hands of Ptolemy son of Abubus in 177 SE. He is succeeded by his son John Hyrcanus.^[75]

134–104 BCE

• Reign of John Hyrcanus.^[75]
• The books 1 Maccabees and the Book of Judith are probably written.^[76][77]

Autumn 134 BCE

• Antiochus VII Sidetes and his army undertakes a siege of Jerusalem. John Hyrcanus capitulates and resumes an alliance after paying a ransom.^[75]

131–129 BCE

• Under the terms of the alliance, John Hyrcanus leads an army east to fight the Parthians as allies of Antiochus VII.^[72]

129 BCE

• Death of Antiochus VII Sidetes. Both the Seleucids and Ptolemies are distracted by leadership disputes. John Hyrcanus and his army return to Jerusalem from the campaign in the east.^[78]

128–122 BCE

• Expansion of the kingdom under John Hyrcanus, largely into Idumea to the south of Judea. Madaba, Adora, and Marisa captured, among others. The Samaritan temple at Mount Gerizim is conquered and destroyed.^[79][80]

124–76 BCE

• The book 2 Maccabees in its modern form is compiled. (Or, if written earlier, the two introductory letters are appended at this point, due to a reference to 124 BCE in one of the letters.)^[81]

c. 108–107 BCE

• The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is written, or at least its main core and earliest form.^[82]

104–103 BCE

• Reign of Aristobulus I, said to be the first Hasmonean ruler to take the title basileus (king) in addition to the High Priesthood. Conquest of Iturea by the Hasmonean kingdom.^[83]

103–76 BCE

• Reign of Alexander Jannaeus; further expansion of the Hasmonean kingdom.^[84]

103–101 BCE

• 'War of Scepters': Alexander Jannaeus attempts to take the city Ptolemais Akko. Ptolemy IX Soter II, then ruler of Cyprus, sails to its defense and defeats the Hasmoneans in battle. Wary of a rival for leadership of the Ptolemaic Kingdom gaining a foothold, Cleopatra III also invades. Jannaeus acknowledges Cleopatra's rule of Ptolemais, forms an alliance with her, and Ptolemy IX is forced to retreat.^[85]

101–100 BCE

• Acquisition of Gadara, Amathus, Raphia, Anthedon, and Gaza by the Hasmonean kingdom.^[84]

100 BCE – 40 CE

• 3 Maccabees is written in Egypt, either in the late Ptolemaic period (100–30 BCE) or in the Roman period (30 BCE and after).^[28]

100 BCE – 68 CE

• Qumran is inhabited by a community of around 200 people, with one settlement lasting from around 100 BCE to 31 BCE before an earthquake disrupted it, and another phase lasting from around 1 CE to 68 CE before being disrupted by a Roman army suppressing the Jewish revolt. The community is speculated to be Essenes, or at least influenced by them. The Qumran community becomes of interest to later scholars due to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Qumran in 1946, the most ancient surviving Jewish manuscripts.^[86]

89–88 BCE

• War between Alexander Jannaeus and Demetrius III, possibly both at the invitation of Jannaeus's internal opponents and as a reprisal for Hasmonean incursions on Seleucid territory. Demetrius III eventually retreats to Damascus.^[84]
• Jannaeus executes his internal opponents and their families who had supported Demetrius III.^[84]

86 BCE

• An army of King Antiochus XII of the Seleucid Empire passes through Judea on the way to a campaign against the Nabateans (Arabs). Jannaeus orders the construction of a defensive line to deter a Seleucid occupation. Antiochus XII is killed in battle against the Nabateans. Aretas III of Nabatea briefly invades Judea, but comes to terms with Jannaeus.^[84]

76–67 BCE

• Reign of Salome Alexandra as Queen.^[87]

67–63 BCE

• Split between the sons of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Hyrcanus II initially succeeds to the throne as High Priest, but Aristobulus II gains the support of the Hasmonean army and contests his brother for leadership. Hyrcanus II at first accepts a powerless ceremonial position, and later flees into exile at the advice of Antipater the Idumaean where he gains the support of Aretas III of Nabatea. Both brothers appeal to the Roman Republic to settle the dispute.^[88][89]

Spring – Summer 63 BCE

• Siege of Jerusalem: Pompey conquers Jerusalem from Aristobulus II's followers and enters the Temple. The Hasmonean kingdom becomes a client state of Rome, with Hyrcanus II restored as high priest.^[88]

63–40 BCE

• Tenure of Hyrcanus II as High Priest, although not as basileus.^[90]
• The Psalms of Solomon are written.^[91][92]

c. 56–55 BCE

• Aristobulus II and his son Antigonus II Mattathias escape from being held hostage in Rome, reunite with Aristobulus's son Alexander, and resume an anti-Roman rebellion. They are defeated and captured again. Aristobulus's son Alexander is released in a peace deal, revolts again, and is defeated again.^[93]

c. 54–53 BCE

• Crassus, as Roman governor of Syria and Judea, loots the Second Temple for money to help pay for an ill-advised military campaign against the Parthian Empire.^[93]

48 BCE

• After Pompey's death during Caesar's civil war, Hyrcanus II is raised to the position of ethnarch (governor) in addition to the high priesthood as a reward for siding with Julius Caesar.^[94]

43–42 BCE

• Civil unrest: Antipater is poisoned by a rival named Malichus and dies. Antipater's son Herod executes Malichus, but faces revolts led by Antigonus II, son of Aristobulus II. Herod and his elder brother Phasael defeat these attempts.^[95]

40 BCE

• Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC: The Parthian Empire conquers much of Roman Syria and Palestine. Hyrcanus II is mutilated by Antigonus II and taken prisoner, Phasael commits suicide, Jerusalem is conquered, and Antipater's son Herod flees into exile.^[96][89]
• Herod, in exile in Rome, is declared king by the Roman Senate.^[96]

40–37 BCE

• Reign of Antigonus II Mattathias as puppet king of the Parthians. His reign is consumed by a losing war against a Roman army commanded by Mark Antony and an army raised by Herod backing his own claim.^[96]

Summer 37 BCE

• Jerusalem is retaken and Antigonus II is executed. Herod the Great, given the kingship of Judea earlier by the Roman Senate, now takes control.^[96]

31–30 BCE

• Battle of Actium: Octavian defeats the alliance of Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra's Ptolemaic Egypt in the Roman Civil War. Ptolemaic Egypt is absorbed into Octavian's victorious side to become Roman Egypt.^[97]
• Hyrcanus II, who had been allowed to live by Herod previously, is now executed by Herod, presumably as a threat to his leadership.^[89]
• Herod, an ally of Mark Antony, pledges his loyalty to Octavian and continues in his kingship of Judea.^[98]

31 BCE – 14 CE

• Reign of Augustus Caesar (Octavian) as Roman Emperor.^[99]
• The Wisdom of Solomon is written, probably in Alexandria in Roman Egypt.^[100]
• The Houses of Hillel and Shammai are active in their writing, although Hillel the Elder dies around 10 CE. The two are considered the last of the Zugot ("pairs").^[101]

10 BCE

• Herod gains influence over Batanaea to the east. As exilic Jews in Babylonia traveled through the area when coming to Judea for trade or pilgrimage, he establishes a Jewish settlement there to protect traders from brigands.^[102]

c. 6–4 BCE

• Usual dating of the birth of Jesus.^[103]

4 BCE

• Death of Herod the Great. His kingdom is divided into the Herodian Tetrarchy between his son Herod Archelaus, his elder brother Herod Antipas, his son by a different wife Philip, and his sister Salome I.^[104]

4 BCE – 30 CE

• Assumption of Moses either is written or reaches its final form (if based on earlier writings).^[105]

6 CE

• Herod Archelaus is deposed as ethnarch. His territory becomes the province of Roman Judea: Judea, Samaria, and Idumea.^[104]
• Census of Quirinius: Romans take a census of the new province of Roman Judea, an act unpopular with local Jews. A Jewish resistance and possibly even revolt arises, although almost nothing is known of it other than that it was led by Judas of Galilee and Saddok the Pharisee. The census and conflict over it helps inspire a radical anti-Roman movement among Judeans, the Zealots.^[106]

c. 10

• Death of Salome I at some point during the term of Marcus Ambivulus (9–12); her territory around Jamnia is incorporated into the Roman province of Judea.^[107]

14–37

• Reign of Roman Emperor Tiberius.^[108]

19

• Emperor Tiberius expels (some? all? non-citizen?) Jews from Rome, although accounts differ as to what precisely happened and how significant it was.^[109][110]

20–54

• The book 4 Maccabees is estimated to have been written, although other scholars suggest an even later date.^[111]

26–36

• Term of Pontius Pilate as procurator of Judea.^[112]

c. 28–30

• Preaching and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth.^[113][103]

c. 30–33

• Trial and crucifixion of Jesus by Pilate.^[103][113]
• Jesus's followers form Jewish Christianity, initially a sect of Judaism.^[114]

c. 30–56

• The rulers Helena of Adiabene, her son Izates, and some number of their subjects convert to Judaism in Adiabene, a Parthian client kingdom. Helena makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem around 46 or 47 and seems to stay for some time.^[115]

34

• Death of the tetrarch Philip. His territory is at first given to the Syrian legate, and soon after to Agrippa I.^[116]

c. 35–37

• Term of Vitellius as governor of Syria. Jews complain to him, and he takes several steps popular among Jews: He grants the Jews custody over the High Priest's vestments, he dismisses Pilate and sends him back to Rome, and remits certain taxes on Jerusalem.^[117]

c. 35–36

• War between Herod Antipas and Aretas IV of Nabatea goes poorly for Antipas, and his army is destroyed.^[118]

37–41

• Reign of Roman Emperor Caligula.^[108]

37

• Caligula grants Agrippa I the title of king and the tetrarchy of Philip and Lysanius.^[108]

38

• Herod Antipas makes an attempt to be given the rank of king himself, fails, and is exiled. His territory in Galilee is given to his rival, Agrippa I.^[119]
• Alexandrian riots: Civic disorder breaks out between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria, Egypt.^[120]

c. 40–41

• An order comes from Caligula that a statue of himself be placed in the Second Temple. The governor of Syria, Petronius, stalls, and Agrippa I intervenes; the plan is quashed.^[121][122]

41

• Emperor Caligula is assassinated. Agrippa aids in Claudius's elevation to the throne; Claudius rewards him by expanding his kingdom to include Judea and Samaria.^[123]
• After further riots in Alexandria between Jews and Greeks, Claudius issues an edict affirming the right of Jews to keep their religion, and directing both parties to maintain the peace. The edict is soon expanded to the Roman world at large, affirming Jewish privileges to maintain their own separate worship.^[124]

41–54

• Reign of Emperor Claudius.^[125]
• At some point in Claudius's reign, an expulsion of Jews from Rome occurs, or possibly an expulsion of Jewish Christians. Details are highly uncertain. As Claudius supported the Jews in other aspects, it is generally thought that this edict was limited in scope and sought the preservation of civic peace, rather than anti-Jewish sentiment.^[124][114]

44

• Death of Agrippa I. Judea reverts to being a Roman province under direct rule, with Fadus dispatched as governor.^[123]

c. 46–64

• Travels of Paul of Tarsus across the Eastern Mediterranean region. He preaches his form of early Christianity, especially to diaspora Jewish communities, and clashes with other diaspora Jewish leaders. One of the beginnings of the eventual split of early Christianity and Judaism; Paul's theology later becomes Pauline Christianity.^[126]

46–48

• Jacob and Simon uprising: An anti-Roman insurgency breaks out in the Galilee and is surpressed.

48–53

• Agrippa II, Agrippa's son, is appointed ruler of Chalcis in Iturea after its previous ruler's death. He is also given responsibility over the Temple and the High Priesthood in Jerusalem.^[127]

52–59

• Term of Antonius Felix as procurator of Judea. His rule is widely condemned in ancient sources, both non-Jewish and Jewish, for its corruption.^[128]

53–66

• Agrippa II is given the territory of the former tetrarchy of his great-uncle Philip to rule, in exchange for giving up Chalcis.^[127]

54–68

• Reign of Emperor Nero.^[129]

64–66

• Gessius Florus's term as procurator of Judea. Josephus blames him for deliberately provoking a revolt to cover up his corruption and crimes; while likely exaggerated, Florus does appear to have enriched himself using his office, leading to Jewish anger.^[130]

66–73

• First Jewish–Roman War: Jews rebel against Roman rule.^[131]

66

• King Agrippa II unsuccessfully appeals for peace; he is expelled from Jerusalem. He appeals to Emperor Nero for aid. Jerusalem is split between a peace party and a war party.^[132]
• The radical Sicarii capture the fortress of Masada and execute the Roman garrison. In July / August, they capture Antonia Fortress, execute the garrison, and set the fort ablaze. ^[132]
• War party takes control of Jerusalem and slaughters the Roman garrison despite it being the Sabbath and a promise of free passage after their surrender.^[132]
• In the wider Eastern Mediterranean region, a cycle of violence begins, as nervous non-Jews and Jews instigate massacres of the other, fearful of the consequences of the other side gaining control.^[132]
• Cestius Gallus, governor of Syria, campaigns against the rebellion. He besieges Jerusalem in October, but breaks off the siege and withdraws.^[132]
• Battle of Beth Horon: Cestius Gallus's retreating troops are defeated by the Jews.^[132]
• The Jewish faction based in Jerusalem forms a Judean provisional government combining both moderates and pro-war parties.^[133]

November 66–May 67

• Jewish rebels attempt to take Ascalon, but are defeated by Roman cavalry in the field.^[134]

67

• Galilee campaign: Roman legions under General Vespasian and Titus subdue Galilee and northern regions. One of the captured Jewish leaders is Josephus, who will later become a court historian.^[134]

68

• Zealot Temple siege: The Zealots and allied Idumeans overthrow the provisional government in Jerusalem and take over leadership of the revolt.^[135]

69

• Year of the Four Emperors: Unrest and civil war in the Roman Empire as Emperor Galba is replaced by Otho, who is replaced by Vitellius. Vespasian, on campaign in Judea, is declared Emperor by his troops and supporters. His allies defeat Vitellius, making Vespasian Emperor.^[136]
• Some of the Idumeans leave Jerusalem and abandon the Zealots.^[135]

May–August 70

• Siege of Jerusalem: Four legions of Roman troops under Titus besiege the city. Infighting between Jewish factions continues, and food supplies run low or are destroyed. Much of Jerusalem is destroyed by fire. The Second Temple is destroyed. Many residents perish, with surviving Jews enslaved.^[137]

70–73

• Romans under Lucilius Bassus besiege and occupy remaining Jewish holdouts. Herodium is taken; Machaerus surrenders and its defenders leave honorably, but the local townspeople are killed or enslaved; and Jewish refugees in the forest of Jades (location uncertain) are slain. The Siege of Masada overwhelms the final pocket of Jewish resistance.^[138]
• Oniad Temple at Leontopolis in Egypt closes and is dismantled on Vespasian's orders, to prevent it from becoming a new center of Jewish worship.^[139]

70–100

• Yohanan ben Zakkai is given permission by Romans to relocate to Yavneh and founds a Jewish academy there in 70 CE. The academy's work becomes the basis for what is eventually known as rabbinic Judaism. The sages active in the first and second century are later known as the Tannaim.^[140][141]
• Council of Jamnia is held in the late 1st century. While the Jewish canon was probably not finalized here, it is often considered the beginning of the standardization of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible).^[140]

115–117

• Kitos War: Jewish rebellions erupt in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Egypt, and Mesopotamia during the reign of Emperor Trajan. They are suppressed, seemingly with extreme loss of life.^[142]

132–136

• Bar Kokhba revolt: Jews in Judea once again rise in revolt, this time under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba. The revolt is defeated, and Jews are banned from living in Jerusalem.^[143]

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