Usnea
Usnea
Genus of lichens
| Usnea | |
|---|---|
| Usnea cavernosa | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Lecanoromycetes |
| Order: | Lecanorales |
| Family: | Parmeliaceae |
| Genus: | Usnea Dill. ex. Adans. (1763) |
| Type species | |
| Usnea florida | |
| Species | |
|
See text | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
Usnea is a genus of mostly pale grayish-green fruticose lichens that grow like leafless mini-shrubs or tassels anchored on bark or twigs.[2]: 203 The genus is in the family Parmeliaceae. It grows all over the world. Members of the genus are commonly called old man's beard, beard lichen, or beard moss.[2]: 203
Members of the genus are similar to those of the genus Alectoria.[2]: 148 A distinguishing test is that the branches of Usnea are somewhat elastic, but the branches of Alectoria snap cleanly off.[2]: 148
The genus Usnea was circumscribed by Michel Adanson in 1763.[3] He used the name designated by Johann Jacob Dillenius, whose earlier published description did not meet the rules of valid publication as established by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. However, he did not specify a type specimen; the species Usnea florida, moved to the genus by Friedrich Heinrich Wiggers in 1780, has been designated as the lectotype.[4] Since the establishment of the genus, hundreds of Usnea species have been described. A three-volume series by Józef Motyka published in 1936 and 1947 listed 451 species.[5] By 2006, the genus contained more than 600 species, which made it one of the largest genera within the family Parmeliaceae.[6] However, many former species are now regarded as morphological varieties and adaptations to local circumstances. The number of recognized species in Finland has decreased for this reason, for example, dropping from 34 in 1951 to 25 in 1963 and only 12 in 2000.[7] In addition, some former Usnea species have been moved to other genera; for instance, Usnea longissima was renamed Dolichousnea longissima in 2004.[8] By 2022, the overall number of species assigned to the genus had dropped to 355.[9]
The name Usnea is probably derived from the Arabic word Ushnah, meaning moss or lichen, though it may also mean "rope-like".[10][11] Based on a fossil Usnea found in Baltic amber, the genus is known to date back to at least the late Eocene, about 34 million years ago.[12]
Usnea lichens are fruticose. Structurally they are shrubby, often with many branches, and can be erect or pendent.[11] Some trailing species can grow to considerable size; strands of Usnea longissima, for example, may exceed 3 meters (9.8 ft) in length.[13] Colours vary depending on the species, from straw-coloured, yellow-green or pale green through green or greyish-green to reddish or variegated red and green.[14] Unlike other similar-looking fruticose lichens, species in this genus have an elastic chord or axis running through the middle of the thallus that can be revealed by gently pulling a filament apart from either end.[15]
Usnea looks very similar to the plant Spanish moss, so much so that the latter's Latin name is derived from it (Tillandsia usneoides, the 'Usnea-like Tillandsia').
Usnea lichens are widely distributed in both the northern and southern hemisphere, in both temperate and tropical regions.[14]
They appear in areas with low levels of air pollution. They can often be found on the ground in areas with where trees or branches have recently been cut, such as orchards (after pruning) and active logging areas.[16]
Usnea lichens reproduce via vegetative means through fragmentation, asexual means through soredia, or sexual means through ascogonium and spermatogonium.[17] The growth rate of lichens in nature is slow, but can be increased in laboratory conditions.[18]
Like other lichens, Usnea often grows on sick or dying trees due to the pre-existing loss of canopy leaves, allowing for greater photosynthesis by the lichen's algae; this leads some gardeners to mistakenly blame the lichen for the tree's leaf loss and illness.[19]
Usnea is very sensitive to air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide.[20] Under poor growing conditions, such as areas high in pollution, they may grow no larger than a few millimetres, if they survive at all. Where the air is unpolluted, they can grow to 10–20 cm long. It can sometimes be used as a bioindicator, because it tends to only grow in those regions where the air is clean,[21] and of high quality.
By humans
Traditional medicines
According to Paul Bergner, Author of Medical Herbalism, "the usnic acid in Usnea is effective against gram positive bacteria such as Streptococcus and Staphylococcus, making Usnea a valuable addition to herbal formulas for sore throats and skin infections. It is also effective against a bacterium that commonly causes pneumonia."[22]
Bolivian traditional healers called the Kallawaya use Kaka sunka in decoction to cure lung problems. The lichen is macerated in alcohol and rubbed onto the body of those suffering from "nervous fragility".[16]
Some believe that Usnea, in high concentrations, could possess some toxicity.[23] The National Toxicology Program evaluated the issue,[24] undertaking research involved feeding male and female rats and mice ground Usnea lichens containing usnic acid for three months at various concentrations. Rats suffered severe toxicity, with significant liver damage observed at various concentrations, while mice experienced liver toxicity, ovarian atrophy, and changes in reproductive cycles at higher doses. Additionally, both species showed weight loss at elevated exposure levels, and mice exhibited potential genetic damage after two weeks at high concentrations. A safe exposure level was established at 60 parts per million, below which no adverse effects were observed.[25]
Dyes
Usnea species have been used to create yellow, orange, green, blue, and purple dyes for textiles.[26][27] This wide variety of possible colors can be achieved due to variations in chemical composition depending on the species, locality, and race of a particular specimen. Specifically, Usnea can contain thamnolic, squamatic, barbatic, salazinic, and alectorialic acids, all of which can affect dye color.[16]
Many indigenous peoples of Central and South America, including the Tarahumura and Mapuche people, have a history of dyeing with Usnea, generally to obtain orange and brown hues. The Tarahumura use them to dye wool blankets in brown and russet hues, and the Mapuche have used Usnea florida to obtain orange. There is also anthropological evidence that Usnea cocca sonca was historically used for dyeing in Peru, and a lichen called cuaxapaxtle was used near Mexico City.[16]
Cosmetics
Usnea barbata has been used in cosmetic production for its antimicrobial and antifungal properties as a preservative and deodorant.[28]
Firestarters
When dry, Usnea lichens are flammable and can be used as a fire starter.[29]
Food
Some Usnea species have been used as food sources during times of scarcity. For example, people in Bosnia and Herzegovina ate Usnea barbata during the Bosnian War, particularly in the winter, when other plant material was not readily available.[30] They ground it into powdery "flour" to make bread or ate it as mush.[31]
By other organisms
The northern parula, a species of New World warbler which breeds in North America, uses Usnea lichens in the construction of its nest in some parts of its range. Where these lichens have declined due to air pollution, the bird has also vanished as a breeding species.[32]
.jpg){kind=link}
.jpg){kind=link}
- Usnea acromelana Stirt. (1898)
- Usnea alboverrucata G.N.Stevens (1999)
- Usnea amblyoclada (Müll.Arg.) Zahlbr. (1930)
- Usnea angulata Ach. (1814)
- Usnea antarctica Du Rietz (1926)
- Usnea aranea Truong & P.Clerc (2016)
- Usnea articulata (L.) Hoffm. (1796)
- Usnea aurantiaciparvula A. Gerlach & P.Clerc (2017)
- Usnea austrocampestris Øvstedal (2012)[33] – Falkland Islands
- Usnea bismolliuscula Zahlbr. (1930)
- Usnea boomiana P.Clerc (2015)
- Usnea brattiae P.Clerc (2007)
- Usnea cavernosa Tuck. (1850)
- Usnea cedrosiana P.Clerc (2007)
- Usnea ceratina Ach. (1810)
- Usnea chaetophora Stirt. (1883)
- Usnea cirrosa Motyka (1937)
- Usnea clerciana Truong (2016)
- Usnea confusa Asahina (1956)
- Usnea cornuta Körb. (1859)
- Usnea crenulata Truong & P.Clerc (2013)
- Usnea crocata Truong & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea cylindrica P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea diplotypus Vain. (1925)
- Usnea effusa G.N.Stevens (1999)
- Usnea elata Motyka (1936)
- Usnea elixii G.N.Stevens (1991)
- Usnea esperantiana P.Clerc (1992)
- Usnea exigua J.M. Rodr. & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea filipendula Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea firmula (Stirt.) Motyka (1936)
- Usnea flammea Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea flavocardia Räsänen (1936)
- Usnea flavorubescens Truong & P.Clerc (2012)
- Usnea fleigiae A.Gerlach & P.Clerc (2017)
- Usnea florida (L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg. (1780)
- Usnea floriformis C.W.Dodge (1948)
- Usnea foveata Vain. (1928)
- Usnea fragilescens Hav. ex Lynge (1921)
- Usnea fulvoreagens (Räsänen) Räsänen (1935)
- Usnea galapagona Truong & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea geissleriana P.Clerc (2006)
- Usnea glabrata (Ach.) Vain. (1915)
- Usnea glabrescens (Nyl. ex Vain.) Vain. (1925)
- Usnea glauca Motyka (1930)
- Usnea grandisora Truong & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea grandispora A.Gerlach & P.Clerc (2017)
- Usnea himantodes Stirt. (1883)
- Usnea hirta (L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg. (1780)
- Usnea inermis Motyka (1936)
- Usnea intermedia (A.Massal.) Jatta (1909)
- Usnea kalbiana A.Gerlach & P.Clerc (2017)
- Usnea krogiana P.Clerc (2006)
- Usnea lambii (Imshaug) Wirtz & Lumbsch (2011)
- Usnea lapponica Vain. (1925)
- Usnea leana Bungartz, Truong & Herrera-Camp. (2018)
- Usnea lutii J.M.Rodr. & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea macaronesica P.Clerc (2006)
- Usnea maculata Stirt. (1882)
- Usnea marivelensis (Vain.) Motyka (1937)
- Usnea mayrhoferi Herrera-Camp., Bungartz, Truong & P.Clerc (2018)
- Usnea mekista (Stirt.) G.Awasthi (1985)
- Usnea messutiae Wirtz & Lumbsch (2011)
- Usnea molliuscula Stirt. (1883)
- Usnea myrmaiacaina P.Clerc (2007)
- Usnea neuropogonoides Motyka (1936)
- Usnea nidifica Taylor (1847)
- Usnea nidulifera Motyka (1937)
- Usnea oncodeoides G.N.Stevens (1999)
- Usnea oncodes Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea oreophila A.Gerlach & P.Clerc (2019)
- Usnea pacificana Halonen (2000)
- Usnea pallidocarpa Wirtz & Lumbsch (2011)
- Usnea parafloridana K.Mark, S.Will-Wolf & T.Randlane (2016)
- Usnea patriciana Bungartz, Herrera-Camp. & P.Clerc (2018)
- Usnea pendulina Motyka (1936)
- Usnea perplexans Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea poliothrix Kremp. (1874)
- Usnea praetervisa (Asahina) P.Clerc (2004)
- Usnea propagulifera C.W. Dodge (1948)
- Usnea pulvinata Fr. (1846)
- Usnea pycnoclada Vain. (1909)
- Usnea pygmoidea (Asahina) Y. Ohmura (2011)
- Usnea quasirigida Lendemer & I.I.Tav. (2003)
- Usnea ramulosissima G.N.Stevens & R.W.Rogers (1979)
- Usnea roseola Vain. (1921)
- Usnea rubicunda Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea rubricornuta Truong & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea rubriglabrata Truong & P.Clerc (2016)
- Usnea rubrotincta Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea sanguinea Swinscow & Krog (1979)
- Usnea saxidilatata J.M.Rodr. & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea scabrata Nyl. (1875)
- Usnea scabrida Taylor (1844)
- Usnea silesiaca Motyka (1930)
- Usnea sphacelata R.Br. (1823)
- Usnea subalpina G.N.Stevens (1999)
- Usnea subaranea Truong & P.Clerc (2016)
- Usnea subcapillaris (D.J.Galloway) F.J. Walker (1985)
- Usnea subcomplecta Truong, P.Clerc & Herrera-Camp. (2018)
- Usnea subcornuta Stirt. (1881)
- Usnea subdasaea Truong & P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea subeciliata (Motyka) Swinscow & Krog (1979)
- Usnea subflammea P.Clerc (2006)
- Usnea subflaveola Truong & P.Clerc (2013)
- Usnea subfloridana Stirt. (1882)
- Usnea subglabrata Truong & P.Clerc (2015)
- Usnea subparvula A.Gerlach & P.Clerc (2017)
- Usnea subrubicunda P.Clerc (2011)
- Usnea subscabrosa Nyl. ex Motyka (1937)
- Usnea tamborensis (Hepp) Motyka (1938)
- Usnea taylorii Hook.f. & Taylor (1844)
- Usnea torulosa (Müll.Arg.) Zahlbr. (1930)
- Usnea trachycarpa (Stirt.) Müll.Arg. (1889)
- Usnea ushuaiensis (I.M.Lamb) Wirtz, Printzen & Lumbsch (2008)
- Usnea viktoriana P.Clerc & Otte (2018)
- Usnea vrieseana Mont. & Bosch (1856)
- Usnea wasmuthii Räsänen (1931)
- Usnea xanthopoga Nyl. (1876)
- Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-19500-2
- Adanson 1763, p. 616.
- Halonen 2000, p. 13.
- Articus 2004, p. 932.
- Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 151.
- Yavuz & Çobanoğlu 2010, p. 4.
- Dobson 2011, p. 445.
- McCarthy & Mallett 2004, p. 80.
- Brodo, Irwin M.; Sylvia Duran Sharnoff; Stephen Sharnoff; Canadian Museum of Nature (2001). Lichens of North America. Yale University Press. pp. 709–710. ISBN 9780300082494. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
- Cardon, Dominique (2007). Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science. Technical advisors: Jo Kirby and Catherine Higgitt. London: Archetype Publications. pp. 524–525. ISBN 978-1-904982-00-5.
- "Optimization of Culture Conditions for Lichen Usnea ghattensis G. Awasthi to Increase Biomass and Antioxidant Metabolite Production". Food Technol. Biotechnol. 47 (1): 7–12. 2009. ISSN 1330-9862.
- Brodo, Irwin M.; Sylvia Duran Sharnoff; Stephen Sharnoff; Canadian Museum of Nature (2001). Lichens of North America. Yale University Press. pp. 57–58. ISBN 9780300082494. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
- Batty, Lesley C.; Hallberg, Kevin B., eds. (2010). Ecology of Industrial Pollution. Ecological Reviews. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780521514460. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
Usnea spp., at one time widespread and luxuriant, almost entirely disappeared from a major area of England and Wales covering at least 68 000 km² and at least 6 000 km² of lowland Scotland, mainly as a result of the increase in atmospheric pollution.
- "Usnea Lichens". www.lichens.net. Retrieved 2018-04-06.
- Jellin, JM; Gregory P.; Batz F.; Hitchens, K.; et al. (2000). "USNEA". Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database (3rd ed.). Stockton, CA: Therapeutic Research Facility. pp. 1048–1049. ISBN 0967613647.
Adverse reactions are uncommon in appropriate amounts. Poisoning can be possible, although signs of poisoning have not yet been described.
- "Testing Status: Usnea lichen 09063". Testing Status of Agents at NTP. National Toxicology Program. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
- National Toxicology Program (NTP) (2022). NTP technical report on the toxicity studies of Usnea lichens containing (+/−)-usnic acid (CASRN 125-46-2) administered in feed to F344/N Nctr rats and B6C3F1/Nctr mice (Report). 105. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program. doi:10.22427/NTP-TOX-105. PMC 9638892.
- Bolton 1991, p. 27.
- Casselman 2001, pp. 33, 36.
- Ash, Michael; Irene Ash (2004). "Lichen (Usnea barbata) extract". Handbook of Preservatives. Synapse Info Resources. p. 437. ISBN 9781890595661. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
- DeGraaf & Yamasaki 2001, p. 219.
- Fryday, Alan M.; Øvstedal, Dag O. (2012). "New species, combinations and records of lichenized fungi from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)". The Lichenologist. 44 (4): 483–500. doi:10.1017/s0024282912000163. S2CID 87490768.
Sources
- Adanson, Michel (1763). Familles des Plantes. Vol. v. 1-2. Paris: Chez Vincent.
- Articus, Kristina (November 2004). "Neuropogon and the phylogeny of Usnea s.l. (Parmeliaceae, Lichenized Ascomycetes)" (PDF). Taxon. 53 (4): 925–934. doi:10.2307/4135560. ISSN 0040-0262. JSTOR 4135560.
- "Beard Lichens (Usnea species)". Woodland Trust. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
- Bolton, Eileen M. (1991). Lichens for Vegetable Dyeing (2 ed.). McMinnville, Oregon: Robin & Russ Handweavers. ISBN 978-1-56659-001-3.
- Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen (2001). Lichens of North America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08249-4.
- Casselman, Karen Diadick (2001). Lichen Dyes: The New Source Book. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41231-3.
- DeGraaf, Richard M.; Yamasaki, Mariko (2001). New England Wildlife. Lebanon NH: University Press of New England. ISBN 0-87451-957-8.
- Dobson, Frank S. (2011). Lichens:An Illustrated Guide to the British and Irish Species. Slough: Richmond Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85546-315-1.
- Halonen, Pekka (2000). Studies on the lichen genus Usnea in East Fennoscandia and Pacific North America (PDF). Oulu, Finland: Oulu University Library. ISBN 978-951-42-5523-6. ISSN 0355-3191.
- Kaasalainen, Ulla; Rikkinen, Jouko; Schmidt, Alexander R. (July 2020). "Fossil Usnea and similar fruticose lichens from Palaeogene amber". The Lichenologist. 52 (4): 319–324. doi:10.1017/s0024282920000286. hdl:10138/318424. S2CID 225403038.
- McCarthy, Patrick M.; Mallett, Katie, eds. (2004). Flora of Australia. Vol. 56A Lichens 4. Collingwood VIC: Australian Biological Resources Study & CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09056-9.
- Motyka, Józef (1936). Lichenum generis usnea.
- Redzic, Sulejman; Barudanovic, Senka; Pilipovic, Sasa (Winter 2010). "Wild Mushrooms and Lichens used as Human Food for Survival in War Conditions; Podrinje - Zepa Region (Bosnia and Herzegovina, W. Balkan)" (PDF). Human Ecology Review. 17 (2): 175–187. JSTOR 24707664.
- "Usnea". Species Fungorum. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
- "Usnea". Index Fungorum. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- Wijayawardene, N.N.; Hyde, K.D.; Dai, D.Q.; Sánchez-García, M.; Goto, B.T.; Saxena, R.K.; et al. (2022). "Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021". Mycosphere. 13 (1): 53–453. doi:10.5943/mycosphere/13/1/2. hdl:10481/76378. S2CID 249054641.
- Wirtz, Nora; Printzen, Christian; Sancho, Leopoldo G.; Lumbsch, Thorsten H. (1 May 2006). "The phylogeny and classification of Neuropogon and Usnea (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota) revisited". Taxon. 55 (2): 367–376. doi:10.2307/25065584. ISSN 0040-0262. JSTOR 25065584.
- Yavuz, Mustafa; Çobanoğlu, Gülşah (Summer 2010). "Ethnological uses and etymology of the word Usnea in Ebubekir Razi's "Liber Almansoris"". British Lichen Society Bulletin. 106: 3–12.