Literature

Kalhana's Rajatarangini, written in the 11th century, was meant to outline Kashmir's past. The book focused on the Utpala dynasty in its fifth section. The dynasty controlled the area from the 9th to 10th centuries, coming into existence in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent under Avantivarman in 855 CE.^{[7][8][lower-alpha 1]} He depended on a variety of material including earlier historical works, dynastic genealogies, inscriptions, coins and Puranas.^[10]

The work has a contested repute of being the only pre-modern work in Sanskrit resembling positivist notions of history; however, its accuracy is disputed—Zutshi and other scholars find the poem to be a blend of "mythical, political, social, spiritual, and geographical" narratives, which aimed at defining Kashmir as an idealized ethical space.^{[8][11][12][13][9][14][15]} Nonetheless, historical accuracy increases drastically from the fourth book onward, starting with the narration of Karkota dynasty; the book—typically the critical edition by Aurel Stein—has been heavily cited to reconstruct Kashmiri history.^{[16][10][7][9][lower-alpha 2]}

Coins

Coins issued by all major rulers of utpala dynasty located.^[3]

Avantivarman

Avantivarman of Kashmir was the founder of the dynasty, he ascended to the throne in about 855/856 AD, and went on to rule for 27 years until 883.^[18] Rajatarangini records no military activity during his reign and frontier territories remained outside Kashmir sovereignty.^[18]

His minister Suyya was responsible for several innovations in the field of irrigation and water-management.^[18][19]

Samkaravarman

Gopalavarman

Gopalavarman was installed as the new king, with John Nemec noting that the labyrinthine series of coups to start with him would be worthy of a Mahabharata-like epic.^[25] He had a short reign of two years (902–904) under the regency of Sugandha.^[18]

Gopalavarman led a famed expedition against a rebel Hindu Shahi king of Udabhanda c. 903 and bestowed the spoils on a "Toramana-Kamaluka."^[18] However, this victory however turned him haughty and the court became unapproachable for the commoners.^[18] Effective power began to wielded by Sugandha's paramour, Prabhakaradeva who was also the royal treasurer.^[18] This continued till he was caught in the act of embezzling state-coffers and a probe launched.^[18]

Prabhakaradeva employed Ramadeva—one of his relatives—to assassinate the king by practice of witchcraft.^[18] Gopalavarman died of a fever soon and Ramadeva died by suicide, after his conspiracy became public knowledge.^[18] Gopalavarman had at-least two consorts—Nanda, a child-girl and Jayalakshmi.^[18] He had no issue at the time of his death but Jayalakshmi was already pregnant.^[18] Consequently, Samkata ascended the throne only to die after ten days.^[18]

Sugandha

Sugandha seized the throne after Samkata, apparently with an intention of securing it for her grandson (from Jayalakshmi); however, he died soon after birth.^[18] She took the throne for herself and ruled for two years—in an environment marked by upheaval of the Tantrins—before trying to install Nirjitavarman, a grandson of Suravarman as well as her blood-relative.^[18]

This was met with considerable resistance from the ministers as well as the Tantrins, on grounds of his lameness and they installed Nirjitavarman's child-son Partha instead.^[18] Thereafter, Nirjitavarman was retained as a regent but Sugandha and her counsel were ousted.^{[18][lower-alpha 4]}

Partha and Nirjitavarman

Crowned at an age of ten, his reign of ten years (906–921) were under the regency of Nirjitavarman, who in turn was a puppet at the hands of Tantrins and the ministers.^[18] The subjects were oppressed and heavy bribes were exacted.^[18]

Samkaravardhana, the eldest minister allied with another minister Sugandhaditya to plunder the royal finances; prime-minister Merubardhana's sons accrued riches as well.^[18] In 914, Sugandha sought to unsuccessfully regain the throne with help from Ekangas and clashed with the Tantrins in a battle; she was imprisoned and executed.^[18] In 917, Kalhana mentions of a flood which subsequently led to a cataclysmic famine; the ministers along with Tantrins made profits by selling hoarded rice at high prices.^[18]

Partha had multiple wives, a mistress Sambavati, and at-least two sons Unmattavanti and Samkaravarman II.^[18] Nirjitavarman had at-least two queens—Bappatadevi and Mrigavati, who was the daughter of Meruvardhana.^[18] Kalhana notes both of them to have entered into sexual relations with Sugandhaditya, in order to secure the throne for their respective sons—Cakravarman and Suravarman I.^[18] The entire span was marked by struggles for the throne between Partha and Nirjitavarman and in 921, Partha was finally overthrown by the Tantrins.^[18] Nothing is recorded by Kalhana about Nirjitavarman's rule of two years.^[18] He died, after having placed Cakravarman on the throne.^[18]

Cakravarman and others

Cakravarman was yet another child-ruler; the Tantrins immediately tried to install back Partha but in vain.^[18] Cakravarman went on to rule for ten years (till 933/934), a few months under the regency of his mother and then, under grandmother Ksillika.^[18]

A new revolution by the Tantrins then installed Suravarman I; he ruled for about a year before being compelled to abdicate the throne, after failing to raise the demanded bribes.^[18] Partha was re-installed with Sambavati conciliating the Tantrins in his favor but deposed within a very short time-span, as Cakravarman promised the Tantrins with even greater riches.^[18] After restoration in 935, he installed Tantrins at important offices but had to flee again, after failing to raise enough taxes.^[18]

Following Cakravarman's abdication, Samkaravardhana dispatched his brother Sambhuvardhana to negotiate with the Tantrins on his behalf.^[18] In the negotiating tables, he promised even greater bribes and purchased the crown for himself, deceiving Samkaravardhana.^[18]

Unmattavanti

Unmattavanti ascended to the throne after Cakravarman, with help from minister Sarvata and others.^[18] In a regime marked by wanton violence, ridiculousness, and oppression, he was effectively controlled by a minister named Parvagupta, who desired for the throne.^[18] Unmattavanti employed Kayasthas in royal services and appointed Rakka, a Brahmin foot-soldier from the house of Samgrama, as the prime-minister.^[18]

At Parvagupta's behest, he had his brothers starved to death and his unarmed father (and step-mothers) assassinated.^[18] Kalhana mentions of Unmattavanti to have been delighted at seeing Partha's corpse, which was even dagger-ed by Parvagupta's son Devagupta in front of him.^[18] Kalhana also accuses Unmattavanti of engaging in a range of dastardly acts including mutilating pregnant women, amputating limbs of laborers, and hitting naked women at their cleavage.^[18]

Unmattavanti has fourteen queens and probably no son.^[18] He died of a chronic disease in 939, suffering immense pain; before his death, he had Suravarman II (who was falsely proclaimed by the servants of his seraglio to be his own son) crowned.^[18]

Suravarman II and disintegration

Suravarman II reigned for hardly a few days, before being ousted by his commander-in-chief Kamalvardhana, who had declared rebellion from his base in Madavarajya against the Damras (and by extension, the Utpalas).^[18] He fled the kingdom with his mother, bringing the Utpala Dynasty to an end.^[18] Kamalvardhana convened an assembly of Brahmins to appoint the next ruler, who rejected his self-nomination as well as a request from Suravarman II's mother.^[18]

Yasaskara, the son of Prabhakaradeva was instead chosen.^[18] This brought an end to the Utpala dynasty and would set the stage for Didda's autocracy.^[18]

Religion

Avantivarman was a devout Vaishnav in his private life but granted public patronage to Shiva.^[33] Vaikuntha Chaturmurti continued to be the tutelary deity of the Utpala dynasy; He was also venerated in adjoining regions.^[34]

Literature

All surviving literature are traced from the court of Avantivarman, who was a famed patron of arts; Ratnakara and Anandavardhana were his court-poets.^[18]

Shrines and cities

Avantivarman along with his chief-minister Sura commissioned numerous temples and towns—Avantipura, Surapura and the Avantiswami Temple.^[18] Suyya established the town of Suyyapura.^[18] Samkaravarman established Samkarapura (modern-day Pattan) and, in conjunction with Sugandha, the Shiva-temples of Samkaragaurisa and Sugandhesa.^[18] Another Shiva-temple in Fattegarh has been dated to his times.^{[35][lower-alpha 5]} Sugandha, during her rule, got constructed the towns of Sugandhapura and Gopalapura, the Vishnu temple Gopalakesava, and the monastery Gopalamatha.^[18] Nanda consecrated the shrines of Nandakesava and Nandamatha.^[18] Meruvardhana built the Vishnu shrine of Meruvardhanasvamin at Puranadhisthana (modern-day Pandrethan).^[18] Sambavati was responsible for founding the Shiva-shrine of Sambveswara.^[18]

• Remains of the Avantiswami Temple built by Avantivarman, of the Utpala dynasty
• Reliefs from the Avantiswami Temple

Sculpture

• The Buddhist deity Chakrasamvara, 9th–10th century CE. LACMA.^[36]
• Bodhisattva Padmapani, Kashmir, 10th century, Linden Museum, Stuttgart.