Voiceless_alveolar_retracted_fricative
Voiceless alveolar fricative
Consonantal sound often represented by ⟨s⟩ in IPA
The voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least six types with significant perceptual differences:
- The voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] has a strong hissing sound, as the s in English sink. It is one of the most common sounds in the world.
- The voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant [s̄] (an ad hoc notation), also called apico-dental, has a weaker lisping sound like English th in thin. It occurs in Spanish dialects in southern Spain (eastern Andalusia). [citation needed]
- The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant [s̠], and the subform apico-alveolar [s̺], or called grave, has a weak hushing sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. It is used in the languages of northern Iberia, like Asturleonese, Basque, Castilian Spanish (excluding parts of Andalusia), Catalan, Galician, and Northern European Portuguese. A similar retracted sibilant form is also used in Dutch, Icelandic, some southern dialects of Swedish, Finnish, and Greek. The retracted "S" is also is used in Amerindian languages such as Muscogee, Garifuna, and many varieties of Quechua. It was supposedly the standard sound of s in Latin. [citation needed] Its sound is between [s] and [ʃ].
- The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] or [θ͇], using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA,[1] is similar to the th in English thin. It occurs in Icelandic as well as an intervocalic and word-final allophone of English /t/ in dialects such as Hiberno-English and Scouse.
- The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English l (somewhat like what the English cluster **hl would sound like) and is written as ll in Welsh.
The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound.
| Dental | Denti- alveolar |
Alveolar | Post-alveolar | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Retracted | Retroflex | Palato- alveolar |
Alveolo- palatal | |||||
| Sibilant | plain | s̪ | s̟ | s͇ | s̠ | ʂ | ʃ | ɕ |
| Non-sibilant | θ | θ͇ | ɻ̝̊ | |||||
| tapped | ɾ̞̊ | |||||||
| IPA symbol |
meaning | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| place of articulation |
passive (mouth) |
⟨s̪⟩ | dental |
| ⟨s̟⟩ | advanced (denti-alveolar) | ||
| ⟨s͇⟩ | alveolar | ||
| ⟨s̠⟩ | retracted (postalveolar) | ||
| active (tongue) |
⟨s̺⟩ | apical | |
| ⟨s̻⟩ | laminal | ||
| ⟨ʂ⟩ | retroflex | ||
| secondary | ⟨sʲ⟩ | palatalized coronal | |
| ⟨ɕ⟩ | alveolo-palatal | ||
| ⟨ʃ⟩ | palato-alveolar | ||
| ⟨sʷ⟩ | labialized coronal | ||
| ⟨sˠ⟩ | velarized coronal | ||
| ⟨sˤ⟩ | pharyngealized coronal | ||
| voice-onset time | ⟨sʰ⟩ | aspirated coronal | |
| Voiceless alveolar sibilant | |
|---|---|
| s | |
| IPA Number | 132 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | s |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0073 |
| X-SAMPA | s |
| Braille |  |
| Voiceless dentalized alveolar sibilant | |
|---|---|
| s̪ | |
| s̟ | |
| IPA Number | 130 |
| Encoding | |
| X-SAMPA | s_d |
| Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant | |
|---|---|
| s̠ | |
| sᶴ | |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | s̺ |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0073 U+033A |
The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨s⟩. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as sssst! or psssst!.
The voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have [s].[2] However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as [ʃ], but no [s]. In addition, sibilants are absent from most Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however, [s] does occur in Kalaw Lagaw Ya.[3]
The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed the voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue (apex) against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in a linguistic area covering northern and central Iberia. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area. In the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old High German and Middle High German.
Occurrence in Europe
Modern
In Romance languages, it occurs as the normal voiceless alveolar sibilant in Astur-Leonese, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, northern European Portuguese, and some Occitan dialects. It also occurs in Basque and Mirandese, where it is opposed to a different voiceless alveolar sibilant, the more common [s]; the same distinction occurs in a few dialects of northeastern Portuguese. Outside this area, it also occurs in a few dialects of Latin American Spanish (e.g. Antioqueño and Pastuso, in Colombia).
Amongst Germanic languages, it occurs in Dutch (and closely related Low German), Icelandic, many dialects in Scandinavia, and working-class Glaswegian English.
It also occurs in Modern Greek (with a laminal articulation), as well as the Baltic languages.
There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound. The symbol ⟨s̺⟩ is often used, with a diacritic indicating an apical pronunciation. However, that is potentially problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical (see below), and not all apical alveolar sibilants are retracted. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols ⟨ṣ⟩ and ⟨S⟩ are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds,[citation needed] but ⟨ṣ⟩ is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant [ʂ].
Medieval
In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including the Romance languages spoken in most or all of France and Iberia (Old Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, French, etc.), as well as in the Old and Middle High German of central and southern Germany,[4] and most likely Northern Germany as well. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like modern English [s], and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred.[5] A solid type of evidence consists of different spellings used for two different sibilants: in general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written ⟨s⟩ or ⟨ss⟩, while the non-retracted variants were written ⟨z⟩, ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ç⟩. In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin /s/, /ss/ or /ns/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlier affricates [t͡s] and [d͡z], which in turn derived from palatalized /k/ or /t/. The situation was similar in High German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic /s/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic /t/ that were shifted by the High German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, were wizzen "to know" (Old English witan, cf. "to wit") vs. wissen "known" (Old English wissen), and wīz "white" (Old English wīt) vs. wīs(e) "way" (Old English wīs, cf. "-wise").
Description of the retracted sibilant
Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a "whistling" quality, and to sound similar to palato-alveolar ʃ. For this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with [ʃ]. This occurred, for example, in English borrowings from Old French (e.g. push from pousser, cash from caisse); in Polish borrowings from medieval German (e.g. kosztować from kosten, żur from sūr (contemporary sauer)); and in representations of Mozarabic (an extinct medieval Romance language once spoken in southern Spain) in Arabic characters. The similarity between retracted [s̺] and [ʃ] has resulted in many exchanges in Spanish between the sounds, during the medieval period when Spanish had both phonemes. Examples are jabón (formerly xabón) "soap" from Latin sapō/sapōnem, jibia "cuttlefish" (formerly xibia) from Latin sēpia, and tijeras "scissors" (earlier tixeras < medieval tiseras) from Latin cīsōrias (with initial t- due to influence from tōnsor "shaver").
One of the clearest descriptions of this sound is from Obaid:[6] "There is a Castilian s, which is a voiceless, concave, apicoalveolar fricative: The tip of the tongue turned upward forms a narrow opening against the alveoli of the upper incisors. It resembles a faint /ʃ/ and is found throughout much of the northern half of Spain".
Many dialects of Modern Greek have a very similar-sounding sibilant that is pronounced with a laminal articulation.[4]
Loss of the voiceless alveolar sibilant
This distinction has since vanished from most of the languages that once had it in medieval times.
- In most dialects of Spanish, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into the non-retracted [s] (seseo). However, in the Spanish of central and northern Spain, the non-retracted [s] was fronted to [θ] after merging with non-retracted [z], while the retracted [s̺] remains (distinción). Distinción is also preserved in Spanish orthography on both sides of the Atlantic.
- In French and most dialects of Portuguese, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into non-retracted [s] and [z], while in European Portuguese, most other Old World Portuguese variants and some recently European-influenced dialects of Brazil all instances of coda [s̺], voiced [z̺] before voiced consonants, were backed to [ʃ], while in most of Brazilian Portuguese this phenomenon is much rarer, being essentially absent in the dialects that had a greater indigenous and/or non-Portuguese European influence.
- In the remaining dialects of Portuguese, found in northern Portugal, they merged into the retracted [s̺] [z̺], or, as in Mirandese (which is, however, not a Portuguese dialect, but belongs to Asturian-Leonese), conserved the medieval distinction.
- In German, [s̺] was early on voiced to [z̺] in prevocalic position. This sound was then fronted to [z], but did not merge with any other sound (except that it was later re-devoiced in some southern dialects). In pre-consonantal and final position, [s̺] merged with either [s] or [ʃ]. The rules for these mergers differ between dialects. In Standard German, [ʃ] is used stem-initially and sporadically after ‹r›. Especially in Alemannic, every pre-consonantal [s̺] became [ʃ].
Loss-causing events
Those languages in which the sound occurs typically did not have a phonological process from which either [s] or [ʃ] appeared, two similar sounds with which ⟨s̺⟩ was eventually confused. In general, older European languages only had a single pronunciation of s.
In Romance languages, [s] was reached from -ti-, -ci-, -ce- ([ti], [ki], [ke]) clusters that eventually became [ts], [tsi], [tse] and later [s], [si], [se] (as in Latin fortia "force", civitas "city", centum "hundred"), while [ʃ] was reached:
- From a [sk] or [ks] cluster in southern Romance, as in Latin miscere > Portuguese mexer "to move", Latin fluxus > Spanish flojo "lax", Latin crescere > Italian crescere "grow", with a different pronunciation.
- from a deaffricated [tʃ] in Northern France and southern-central Portugal, as in French chat "cat", Portuguese achar "find".
In High German, [s] was reached through a [t] > [ts] > [s] process, as in German Wasser compared to English water. In English, the same process of Romance [ts] > [s] occurred in Norman-imported words, accounting for modern homophones sell and cell. [ʃ] was also reached from a -sk- cluster reduction as in Romance, e.g. Old English spelling asc for modern ash, German schiff and English ship compared to Danish skib.
Exceptions
Standard Modern Greek, which has apical [s̺], lacked both processes.
The Germanic-speaking regions that did not have either phenomenon have normally preserved the apical [s̺], that is, Icelandic, Dutch and many Scandinavian lects. It is also found in a minority of Low German dialects.
The main Romance language to preserve the sound, Castilian Spanish, is exceptional in that it had both events that produced [s] and [ʃ], and preserved the apical S at the expense of both, that were shifted farther away. Galician, Catalan and Ladino changed only [s].
Reach in ancient times
Because of the widespread medieval distribution, it has been speculated that retracted [s̺] was the normal pronunciation in spoken Latin. Certain borrowings suggest that it was not far off from the sh-sound [ʃ], e.g. Aramaic Jeshua > Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs) > Latin Jesus, Hebrew Shabbat > Latin sabbatum; but this could also be explained by the lack of a better sound in Latin to represent Semitic š. It equally well could have been an areal feature inherited from the prehistoric languages of Western Europe, as evidenced by its occurrence in modern Basque.
For the same reasons, it can be speculated that retracted [s̺] was the pronunciation of Proto-Germanic s. Its presence in many branches of Indo-European and its presence particularly in the more conservative languages inside each branch (e.g. Icelandic, Spanish), as well as being found in disparate areas, such as the Baltic languages and Greece, suggests it could have ultimately been the main allophone of Proto-Indo-European s,[5] known for ranging from [s] to as far as [ɕ].
[ʃ], but not [s], was developed in Italian. However, where Spanish and Catalan have apical [s̺], Italian uses the same laminal [s] that occurs in standard forms of English: evidence, it could be argued, that S was not pronounced apically in Latin. But Neapolitan has a medieval S becoming either [s] or [ʃ] depending on context, much as in European Portuguese, which could attest to the previous existence of [s̺] in the Italian Peninsula. The Italian pronunciation as laminal S could also be explained by the presence of [ʃ] but not [s], thus moving the pronunciation of [s̺] to the front of the mouth in an attempt to better differentiate between the two sounds.
A voiceless laminal dental or dentialveolar sibilant contrasts with a voiceless apical alveolar or post-alveolar sibilant in Basque and several languages of California, including Luiseño of the Uto-Aztecan family and Kumeyaay of the Yuman family.
The term "voiceless alveolar sibilant" is potentially ambiguous in that it can refer to at least two different sounds. Various languages of northern Iberia (e.g., Astur-Leonese, Catalan, Basque, Galician, Portuguese and Spanish) have a so-called "voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant" that lacks the strong hissing of the [s] described in this article but has a duller, more "grave" sound quality somewhat reminiscent of a voiceless retroflex sibilant. Basque, Mirandese and some Portuguese dialects in northeast Portugal (as well as medieval Spanish and Portuguese in general) have both types of sounds in the same language.
There is no general agreement about what actual feature distinguishes these sounds. Spanish phoneticians normally describe the difference as apical (for the northern Iberian sound) vs. laminal (for the more common sound), but Ladefoged and Maddieson[7] claim that English /s/ can be pronounced apically, which is evidently not the same as the apical sibilant of Iberian Spanish and Basque. Also, Adams[8] asserts that many dialects of Modern Greek have a laminal sibilant with a sound quality similar to the "apico-alveolar" sibilant of northern Iberia.
Some authors have instead suggested that the difference lies in tongue shape. Adams[8] describes the northern Iberian sibilant as "retracted". Ladefoged and Maddieson[7] appear to characterize the more common hissing variant as grooved, and some phoneticians (such as J. Catford) have characterized it as sulcal (which is more or less a synonym of "grooved"), but in both cases, there is some doubt about whether all and only the "hissing" sounds actually have a "grooved" or "sulcal" tongue shape.
Features of the voiceless alveolar sibilant:
- Its manner of articulation is sibilant fricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along a groove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequency turbulence.
- There are at least three specific variants of [s]:
- Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [s] is very strong.[9]
- Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
- Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to laminal [ʂ] or (to a lesser extent) [ʃ].
- Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Dentalized laminal alveolar
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic | Gulf[10] | مسجد (masjid) | [mɐˈs̪d͡ʒɪd̪] | 'mosque' | |
| Armenian | Eastern[11] | սար (sar) | [s̪ɑɾ]ⓘ | 'mountain' | |
| Azerbaijani[12] | su | [s̪u] | 'water' | ||
| Basque[13] | gauza | [ɡäus̪ä] | 'thing' | Contrasts with an apical sibilant.[13] See Basque phonology | |
| Belarusian[14] | стагоддзе (stağoddzě) | [s̪t̪äˈɣod̪d̪͡z̪ʲe] | 'century' | Contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology | |
| Bulgarian[15] | всеки (vseki) | [ˈfs̪ɛkʲi] | 'everyone' | Contrasts with palatalized form. | |
| Chinese | Mandarin[16][17] | 三 (sān) | [s̪a̋n] | 'three' | See Mandarin phonology |
| Czech[18] | svět | [s̪vjɛt̪] | 'world' | See Czech phonology | |
| Chuvash | савăт/savët | [s̪aʋət] | 'vessel, glass' | ||
| English | Auckland[19] | sand | [s̪ɛnˑd̥] | 'sand' | See English phonology |
| Multicultural London[20] | [s̪anˑd̥] | ||||
| French[21][22][23] | façade | [fäs̪äd̪] | 'front' | See French phonology | |
| Hungarian[24] | sziget | [ˈs̪iɡɛt̪] | 'island' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Kashubian[25] | [example needed] | ||||
| Kazakh[26] | сом/sum | [s̪u̯ʊm] | 'pure' | ||
| Kyrgyz[27] | сабиз (sabiz) | [s̪äˈbis̪] | 'carrot' | ||
| Latvian[28] | sens | [s̪en̪s̪] | 'ancient' | See Latvian phonology | |
| Macedonian[29] | скока (skoka) | [ˈs̪kɔkä] | 'jump' | See Macedonian phonology | |
| Mirandese | [example needed] | Contrasts seven sibilants altogether, preserving medieval Ibero-Romance contrasts. | |||
| Polish[9][30] | sum | [s̪um]ⓘ | 'catfish' | See Polish phonology | |
| Romanian[31] | surd | [s̪ur̪d̪] | 'deaf' | See Romanian phonology | |
| Russian[32] | волосы (volosy) | [ˈvo̞ɫ̪əs̪ɨ̞]ⓘ | 'hair' | Contrasts with palatalized form. See Russian phonology | |
| Scottish Gaelic[33] | Slàinte | [ˈs̪ɫ̪äːn̪t̪ʰʲə] | 'cheers' | See Scottish Gaelic phonology | |
| Serbo-Croatian[34][35] | село (selo) | [s̪ĕ̞lo̞] | 'village' | See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Slovene[36] | svet | [s̪ʋêːt̪] | 'world' | See Slovene phonology | |
| Spanish | Iberian[37] | estar | [e̞s̪ˈt̪äɾ] | 'to be' | Allophone of /s/ before dental consonants.[37] See Spanish phonology |
| Swedish[38] | Central Standard[39][40] | säte | [ˈs̪ɛːt̪e] | 'seat' | Retracted in some southern dialects.[41] See Swedish phonology |
| Toda[42][43] | கொவ் (kos) | [kɔs̪] | 'money' | Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.[44] | |
| Turkish[21][45] | su | [s̪u] | 'water' | See Turkish phonology | |
| Ukrainian[46] | село (selo) | [s̪ɛˈɫ̪ɔ] | 'village' | Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Upper Sorbian[47] | sowa | [ˈs̪owä] | 'owl' | ||
| Uzbek[48] | soät | [ˈs̪o̞æt̪] | 'hour' | ||
| Vietnamese | Hanoi[49] | xa | [s̪äː] | 'far' | See Vietnamese phonology |
Non-retracted alveolar
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | сэ/sė | [sa] | 'I' | ||
| Arabic | Modern Standard[50] | جَلَسَ/ǧalasa | [ˈdʒælæsɐ] | 'to sit' | See Arabic phonology |
| Assyrian | ܣܝܦܐ sèpa | [seːpaː] | 'sword' | ||
| Bengali | রাস্তা | [raːst̪a] | 'street' | See Bengali phonology | |
| Burmese | စစားဗျီ/ca carr bhye | [sə sá bjì] | 'I am eating now' | ||
| Chechen | сурт / surt | [suʊrt] | 'picture' | ||
| Chinese | Cantonese | 閃 / sim2 | [siːm˧˥] | 'twinkle' | See Cantonese phonology |
| Dutch | Belgian Standard[51] | staan | [staːn] | 'to stand' | Laminal.[51] See Dutch phonology |
| Emilian | sèl | [ˈs̺ʲɛːl] | 'salt' | Palatalized apical;[52] may be [ʂ] or [ʃ] instead.[52] | |
| Estonian | sõna | [ˈsɤnɑ] | 'word' | ||
| English | sit | [sɪt]ⓘ | 'sit' | See English phonology | |
| Esperanto | Esperanto | [espeˈranto] | 'Who hopes' | See Esperanto phonology | |
| Faroese | sandur | [sandʊɹ] | 'sand' | ||
| Georgian[53] | სამი/sami | [ˈsɑmi] | 'three' | ||
| Hebrew | ספר/sefer | [ˈsefeʁ] | 'book' | See Modern Hebrew phonology | |
| Hindustani | साल / سال | [saːl] | 'year' | See Hindustani phonology | |
| Japanese[54] | 複数形 / fukusūkē | [ɸɯkɯsɯːkeː] | 'plural' | See Japanese phonology | |
| Kabardian | сэ/sė | [sa] | 'I' | ||
| Khmer | អេស្ប៉ាញ / éspanh | [ʔeːˈspaːɲ] | noun: 'Spain' adjective: 'Spanish' | See Khmer phonology | |
| ម៉ាស៊ីន / masin | [maːˈsiːn] | 'machine' | |||
| Korean | 섬 / seom | [sʌːm] | 'island' | See Korean phonology | |
| Malay | satu | [satu] | 'one' | ||
| Maltese | iebes | [eaˈbes] | 'hard' | ||
| Marathi | साप | [saːp] | 'snake' | See Marathi phonology | |
| Nepali | सगरमाथा | [sʌɡʌrmät̪ʰä] | 'Mount Everest' | See Nepali phonology | |
| Odia | ସମାନ | [sɔmänɔ] | 'equal' | ||
| Occitan | Limousin | maichent | [mejˈsẽ] | 'bad' | |
| Persian | سیب / sib | [sib] | 'apple' | See Persian phonology | |
| Portuguese[55] | caço | [ˈkasu] | 'I hunt' | See Portuguese phonology | |
| Punjabi | ਸੱਪ/sapp | [səpː] | 'snake' | ||
| Spanish[37] | Latin American | saltador | [s̻a̠l̪t̪a̠ˈð̞o̞r] | 'jumper' | See Spanish phonology and Seseo |
| Canarian | |||||
| Andalusian | |||||
| Filipino | |||||
| Swahili | Kiswahili | [kiswaˈhili] | 'Swahili' | ||
| Sylheti | ꠢꠂꠍꠦ/oise | [ɔise] | 'done' | ||
| Tagalog | lasa | [ˈlasɐ] | 'taste' | ||
| Vietnamese[56] | xa | [saː˧] | 'far' | See Vietnamese phonology | |
| Yi | ꌦ sy | [sɹ̩˧] | 'die' | ||
Retracted alveolar
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asturian | pasu | [ˈpäs̺u] | 'step' | Apical. | |
| Basque[13][57] | su | [s̺u] | 'fire' | Apical. Contrasts with a dentalized laminal sibilant.[13][57] | |
| Bengali[58] | শ/śô | [s̠ɔː] | 'hundred' | See Bengali phonology | |
| Catalan[59][60] | Most dialects | set | [ˈs̺ɛt̪] | 'seven' | Apical. See Catalan phonology |
| Some Valencian speakers[61] | peix | [ˈpe̠js̠ʲ] | 'fish' | Normally transcribed with ⟨ʂ⟩; realized as pre-palatal [ɕ] in Standard Catalan and Valencian. | |
| patisc | [päˈt̪is̠ʲk] | 'I suffer' | |||
| English | Glasgow[62] | sun | [s̺ʌn] | 'sun' | Working-class pronunciation, other speakers may use a non-retracted [s] |
| Emilian | sèinpar | [ˈs̠æ̃.pər] | 'always' | ||
| Galician | saúde | [s̺äˈuðe] | 'health' | Apical. | |
| Icelandic[63][64] | segi | [ˈs̺ɛːjɪ] | 'I say' | Apical.[63][64] See Icelandic phonology | |
| Italian | Central Italy[65] | sali | [ˈs̠äːli] | 'you go up' | Present in Lazio north of Cape Linaro,[65] most of Umbria[65] (save Perugia and the extreme south),[65] Marche and south of Potenza.[65] |
| Northern Italy[66][67] | Apical.[68] Present in many areas north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line.[69][70] Derived from local languages of northern Italy. See Italian phonology | ||||
| Sicily[65] | Present south and west of a line drawn from Syracuse to Cefalù.[65] | ||||
| Leonese | pasu | [ˈpäs̺ʊ] | 'step' | Apical. | |
| Low German[41] | [example needed] | ||||
| Mirandese | passo | [ˈpäs̺u] | 'step' | Apical. Contrasts with /s̪/. | |
| Occitan | Gascon | dos | [d̻ys̺] | 'two' | See Occitan phonology |
| Languedocien | [d̻us̺] | ||||
| Piedmontese | sapin | [s̠apiŋ] | 'pine' | Apical. | |
| Portuguese[55][71] | European, inland northern | cansaço | [kɐ̃ˈs̺as̻u] | 'weariness' | Apical. Contrasts with /s̻/. See Portuguese phonology |
| European, coastal northern | [kɐ̃ˈs̺as̺u] | Merges with /s̻/. See Portuguese phonology | |||
| Inland and southern capixaba | pescador | [pe̞s̺käˈd̻oχ] | 'fisherman' | Realization of Portuguese coda sibilant, which may be postalveolars, depending on dialect | |
| Carioca do brejo | escadas | [is̺ˈkäd̻ɐs̺] | 'stairs' | ||
| Spanish | Andean | saltador | [s̺äl̪t̪äˈð̞o̞ɾ] | 'jumper' | Apical. In Andean and Paisa (except in southern parts of Antioquia) alternates with a more frequent coronal-dental /s/.[72][73] See Spanish phonology and seseo |
| Castilian[37] | |||||
| Paisa accent | |||||
| Swedish | Blekinge[41] | säte | [ˈs̠ɛːte] | 'seat' | See Swedish phonology |
| Bohuslän[41] | |||||
| Halland[41] | |||||
| Scania[41] | |||||
| Toda[42][43] | pōs̠ | [po:s̠] | 'milk' | Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.[44] | |
| Vietnamese | Saigon[74] | xe | [s̺ɛ˧] | 'vehicle' | Apical. |
Variable
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Danish[75][76][77] | sælge | [ˈseljə] | 'sell' | Most often non-retracted apical, but can be dentalized laminal for some speakers.[75][76][77] See Danish phonology | |
| Dutch | Northern Standard[78][79] | staan | [staːn] | 'to stand' | Laminal. It is laxer than in English, has a graver friction and is sometimes labialized. It is retracted when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and /r/.[78] See Dutch phonology |
| Finnish[80] | sinä | [ˈsinæ] | 'you' | Varies between non-retracted and retracted.[80] See Finnish phonology | |
| German | Standard[81] | Biss | [bɪs] | 'bite' | Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical.[81] See Standard German phonology |
| Greek[82] | σαν / san | [sɐn] | 'as' | Varies between non-retracted and retracted, depending on the environment.[82] See Modern Greek phonology | |
| Norwegian | Urban East[83] | sand | [sɑnː] | 'sand' | Most often dentalized laminal, but can be non-retracted apical for some speakers.[83] See Norwegian phonology |
| Italian | Standard[84] | sali | [ˈsäːli] | 'you go up' | Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[84] See Italian phonology |
| Ticino[68] | Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[85] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[68] See Italian phonology | ||||
| West Frisian[78] | sâlt | [sɔːt] | 'salt' | Laminal. It is laxer than in English and has a graver friction. It varies between retracted and non-retracted, depending on the environment.[78] See West Frisian phonology | |
| Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative | |
|---|---|
| θ̠ | |
| θ͇ | |
| ɹ̝̊ | |
| t̞ | |
| IPA Number | 130 414 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | θ̱ |
| Unicode (hex) | U+03B8 U+0331 |
| Voiceless alveolar approximant | |
|---|---|
| ɹ̥ | |
| IPA Number | 151 402A |
| Encoding | |
| X-SAMPA | r\_0 |
| Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative | |
|---|---|
| ɾ̞̊ | |
| ɹ̥̆˔ | |
| IPA Number | 124 402A 430 |
| Encoding | |
| Unicode (hex) | U+027E U+031E U+030A |
The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "slit" fricative) is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed ⟨θ̠⟩, occasionally ⟨θ͇⟩ (retracted or alveolarized [θ], respectively), ⟨ɹ̝̊⟩ (constricted voiceless [ɹ]), or ⟨t̞⟩ (lowered [t]).
Some scholars also posit the voiceless alveolar approximant distinct from the fricative. The approximant may be represented in the IPA as ⟨ɹ̥⟩.
Few languages also have the voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur.[86]
Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.
Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.[86]
Features
- Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
- Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afenmai[86] | aru | [aɾ̞̊u] | 'hat' | Tapped; tense equivalent of lax /ɾ/.[86] | |
| Dutch[87] | Geert | [ɣeːɹ̝̊t] | 'Geert' | One of many possible realizations of /r/; distribution unclear. See Dutch phonology | |
| Emilian | Bolognese[68] | zidrån | [θ̠iˈdrʌn] | 'lemon' | |
| English | Australian[88] | Italy | [ˈɪ̟θ̠əɫɪi̯] | 'Italy' | Occasional allophone of /t/.[88] See Australian English phonology |
| Received Pronunciation[89] | [ˈɪθ̠əli] | Common allophone of /t/.[89] | |||
| Irish[90] | Allophone of /t/. See English phonology | ||||
| Scouse[91][92] | |||||
| Newfoundland[93][94] | |||||
| Some American speakers[95] | [ˈɪɾ̞̊ɨ̞ɫi] | Tapped; possible allophone of /t/. Can be a voiceless tap [ɾ̥] or a voiced tap [ɾ] instead.[95] See English phonology | |||
| General American | trap | [ˈt̠ɹ̝̊æp̚] | 'trap' | Common allophone of /r/ following /t/ or [tʰ]. Phonologically interchangeable with /tʃɹ-/. Dialectal in English English. See English phonology | |
| Some English English speakers[96][97] | [ˈt̠ɹ̝̊æʔp] | ||||
| New Zealand | [ˈt̠ɹ̝̊e̞p] | ||||
| Faroese[98] | eiturkoppur | [ˈaiːtʊɹ̥ˌkʰɔʰpːʊɹ] | 'spider' | Devoiced approximant allophone of /r/.[98] See Faroese phonology | |
| Icelandic[64][99] | þakið | [ˈθ̠äkið̠] | 'the roof' | Laminal.[64][99] See Icelandic phonology | |
| Turkish[100] | bir | [biɾ̞̊] | 'a(n)' | Tapped; word-final allophone of /ɾ/.[100] See Turkish phonology | |
| Voiceless alveolar lateral–median fricative | |
|---|---|
| ʪ | |
| θ̠ˡ | |
| ɬ͡θ̠ | |
| ɬ͡s |
| Voiceless dental lateral–median fricative | |
|---|---|
| ʪ̪ | |
| θˡ | |
| ɬ̪͡θ |
The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "lisp" fricative) is a consonantal sound. Consonants is pronounced with simultaneous lateral and central airflow.
Features
- Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
- Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
- Pandeli et al. (1997), p. ?.
- Maddieson (1984), p. ?.
- Jessica Hunter; Claire Bowern; Erich Round (1 June 2011). "Reappraising the Effects of Language Contact in the Torres Strait". Journal of Language Contact. 4 (1): 106–140. doi:10.1163/187740911X558798. ISSN 1877-4091. Wikidata Q56228341.
- Adams (1975), p. ?.
- Obaid (1973), p. ?.
- Adams (1975), p. 283.
- Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977), p. 149, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 154
- Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9.
- Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
- Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 128–131.
- Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), p. 1. Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety".
- Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
- Klagstad Jr. (1958), p. 46. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFKlagstad_Jr.1958 (help)
- Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110.
- Lin (2001), pp. 17–25.
- Palková (1994), p. 228.
- Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 594.
- "English speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
- Adams (1975), p. 288.
- Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
- Grønnum (2005), p. 144.
- Szende (1999), p. 104.
- Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
- Kara (2002), p. 10.
- Kara (2003), p. 11.
- Nau (1998), p. 6.
- Lunt (1952), p. 1.
- Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
- Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.[permanent dead link]
- Chew (2003), p. 67.
- Lamb (2003), p. 18.
- Kordić (2006), p. 5.
- Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
- Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
- Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 171.
- Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.
- Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
- Adams (1975), p. 289.
- Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 157.
- Ladefoged (2005), p. 168.
- Krishnamurti (2003), p. 66. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFKrishnamurti2003 (help)
- Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
- Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
- Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
- Thompson (1987), pp. 8–9.
- Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
- Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
- Canepari (1992), p. 73.
- Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
- Okada (1999), p. 117.
- Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
- Hualde, J. Basque Phonology (1991) Routledge ISBN 0-415-05655-1
- Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1921). "Bengali Phonetics". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. 2. London: 7. doi:10.1017/s0041977x0010179x. S2CID 246637825.
- Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
- Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
- Saborit (2009), p. 12.
- "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
- Kress (1982), pp. 23–24. "It is never voiced, as s in sausen, and it is pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, close to the upper teeth – somewhat below the place of articulation of the German sch. The difference is that German sch is labialized, while Icelandic s is not. It is a pre-alveolar, coronal, voiceless spirant."
- Pétursson (1971), p. ?, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 145.
- Adams (1975), p. 286.
- Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
- Canepari (1992), pp. 71–72.
- Canepari (1992), p. 72.
- Canepari (1992), p. 71.
- Adams (1975), p. 285.
- "2.3. Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese)" [Romance accents: Portugal and Brazil (Portuguese)] (PDF). Pronunce Straniere dell'Italiano [Foreign pronunciations of Italian] (in Italian). pp. 174–181. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30.
- Joaquín Montes Giraldo (1992), p. 527.
- Betancourt Arango (1993), p. 285–286.
- Basbøll (2005), pp. 61 and 131.
- Thorborg (2003), p. 80. The author states that /s/ is pronounced with "the tip of the tongue right behind upper teeth, but without touching them." This is confirmed by the accompanying image.
- Grønnum (2005), p. 144. Only this author mentions both alveolar and dental realizations.
- Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.
- Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
- Mangold (2005), p. 50.
- Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
- Skaug (2003), pp. 130–131.
- Canepari (1992), p. 68.
- Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
- Laver (1994), p. 263.
- Collins & Mees (2003), p. 199. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
- Loakes & McDougall (2007), pp. 1445–1448.
- Buizza (2011), pp. 16–28.
- Hickey (1984), pp. 234–235.
- Marotta & Barth (2005), p. 385.
- Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
- Van Herk, Gerard (2010). "Identity Marking and Affiliation in an Urbanizing Newfoundland Community". Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader: 139.
- Clarke, Sandra (2009). Hickey, Raymond (ed.). "The Legacy of British and Irish English in Newfoundland". Legacies of Colonial English. Studies in English Language: 242–261. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511486920. ISBN 9780521830201.
- Laver (1994), pp. 263–264.
- Boberg (2004), p. 361. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBoberg2004 (help)
- Kerswill, Torgerson & Fox (2006), p. 30. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFKerswillTorgersonFox2006 (help)
- Árnason (2011), p. 115.
- Grønnum (2005), p. 139.
- Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.
- Heselwood (2013) Phonetic transcription in theory and practice, p 122–123
- Janet Watson (January 2011). "Lateral fricatives and lateral emphatics in southern Saudi Arabia and Mehri". academia.edu.
- Watson, Janet (January 2013). "Lateral reflexes of Proto-Semitic D and Dh in Al-Rubu'ah dialect, south-west Saudi Arabic: Electropalatographic and acoustic evidence". Nicht Nur mit Engelszungen: Beiträge zur Semitischen Dialektologie: Festschrift für Werner Arnold.
- Adams, Douglas Q. (1975), "The Distribution of Retracted Sibilants in Medieval Europe", Language, 51 (2): 282–292, doi:10.2307/412855, JSTOR 412855
- Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922931-4
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11, retrieved 2013-12-11
- Axundov, Ağamusa (1983), Azərbaycan dilinin fonetikasi, Baku
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-203-97876-4
- Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul (2004), "New Zealand English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 580–602, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5
- Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005), "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 131–151, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148
- Betancourt Arango, Amanda (1993), "Lengua y región" [Language and region] (PDF), Thesaurus (in Spanish), XLVIII (2), Bogota: 255–291, retrieved 2021-02-03
- Buk S, Mačutek J, Rovenchak A (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16: 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198. Bibcode:2008arXiv0802.4198B.
- Buizza, Emanuela (2011), "Frication and affrication of /t/ in RP English" (PDF), Language at the University of Essex (LangUE) 2010 Proceedings, pp. 16–28, archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-19, retrieved 2014-04-18
- Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 978-88-08-24624-0
- Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809
- Chew, Peter A. (2003), A computational phonology of Russian, Universal Publishers
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
- Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
- Engstrand, Olle (2004), Fonetikens grunder (in Swedish), Lund: Studenlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-04238-1
- Espejo Olaya, María Bernarda (2015), Alofonía de /s/ en Colombia, Bogota: Caro and Cuervo Institute
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1999), "French", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, vol. 23, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0, S2CID 249404451
- Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 978-87-500-3865-8
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1999), "Dutch", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–77, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
- Hickey, Raymond (1984), "Coronal Segments in Irish English", Journal of Linguistics, 20 (2): 233–250, doi:10.1017/S0022226700013876, S2CID 145672742
- Honeybone, P (2001), "Lenition inhibition in Liverpool English", English Language and Linguistics, 5 (2): 213–249, doi:10.1017/S1360674301000223, S2CID 91182225
- Hualde, José Ignacio; Lujanbio, Oihana; Zubiri, Juan Joxe (2010), "Goizueta Basque" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (1): 113–127, doi:10.1017/S0025100309990260
- Joaquín Montes Giraldo, José (1992), "Lingüística, idiomática y español de América" [Linguistics, idiomatic and Spanish of America], Revista de Filología Española [Journal of Spanish Philology] (in Spanish), LXXII (3–4), Bogota: 337–343, retrieved 2021-02-03
- Kara, Dávid Somfai (2002), Kazak, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783895864704
- Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895868436
- Klagstad, Harold L. Jr. (1958), "The Phonemic System of Colloquial Standard Bulgarian", The Slavic and East European Journal, 2 (1): 42–54, doi:10.2307/304696, JSTOR 304696
- Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-161-1
- Kozintseva, Natalia (1995), Modern Eastern Armenian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895860355
- Kress, Bruno (1982), Isländische Grammatik, VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie Leipzig
- Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (2nd ed.), Blackwell
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- Lamb, William (2003), Scottish Gaelic (2nd ed.), Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-727-9
- Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
- Laver, John (1994), Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-45655-5
- Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208
- Lin, Hua (2001), A Grammar of Mandarin Chinese, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-642-5
- Loakes, Deborah; McDougall, Kirsty (2007), Frication of Australian English /p t k/: Group Tendencies and Individual Differences (PDF)
- Lunt, Horace G. (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language, Skopje
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Maddieson, Ian (1984), Patterns of sound, Cambridge University Press
- Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
- Marotta, Giovanna; Barth, Marlen (2005), "Acoustic and sociolingustic aspects of lenition in Liverpool English" (PDF), Studi Linguistici e Filologici Online, 3 (2): 377–413, archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-02-25, retrieved 2013-04-22
- Martin Harris and Nigel Vincent. The Romance Languages.
- Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
- Nau, Nicole (1998), Latvian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-228-1
- Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1977), A short reference grammar of Gulf Arabic, Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, ISBN 978-0-8165-0570-8
- Obaid, Antonio H. (1973), "The Vagaries of the Spanish 'S'", Hispania, 56 (1): 60–67, doi:10.2307/339038, JSTOR 339038
- Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0
- Padluzhny, Ped (1989), Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy, Навука і тэхніка, ISBN 978-5-343-00292-8
- Palková, Zdena (1994), Fonetika a fonologie češtiny, Karolinum, ISBN 978-8070668436
- Pandeli, H; Eska, J; Ball, Martin; Rahilly, J (1997), "Problems of phonetic transcription: the case of the Hiberno-English slit-t", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 27 (1–2): 65–75, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005430, S2CID 145119728
- Pétursson, Magnus (1971), "Étude de la réalisation des consonnes islandaises þ, ð, s, dans la prononciation d'un sujet islandais à partir de la radiocinématographie", Phonetica, 33 (4): 203–216, doi:10.1159/000259344, S2CID 145316121
- Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski
- Puppel, Stanisław; Nawrocka-Fisiak, Jadwiga; Krassowska, Halina (1977), A handbook of Polish pronunciation for English learners, Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, ISBN 9788301012885
- Recasens, Daniel; Pallarès, Maria Dolores (2001), "Coarticulation, Assimilation and Blending in Catalan Consonant Clusters", Journal of Phonetics, 29 (3): 273–301, doi:10.1006/jpho.2001.0139
- Rocławski, Bronisław (1976), Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego, Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego
- Saborit, Josep (2009), Millorem la pronúncia (in Catalan), Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
- Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
- Sipma, Pieter (1913), Phonology & grammar of modern West Frisian, London: Oxford University Press
- Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar, Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 18, Bloomington: Indiana University
- Skaug, Ingebjørg (2003) [First published 1996], Norsk språklydlære med øvelser (3rd ed.), Oslo: Cappelen Akademisk Forlag AS, ISBN 978-82-456-0178-7
- Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina
- Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka (2008), Finnish sound structure – Phonetics, phonology, phonotactics and prosody (PDF), Studia Humaniora Ouluensia 9, Oulu University Press, ISBN 978-951-42-8984-2
- Szende, Tamás (1999), "Hungarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 104–107, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
- Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Illustrations of the IPA: Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266, S2CID 243640727
- Thompson, Laurence C. (1959), "Saigon phonemics", Language, 35 (3): 454–476, doi:10.2307/411232, JSTOR 411232
- Thompson, Laurence C. (1987), A Vietnamese Reference Grammar, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1117-4
- Thorborg, Lisbet (2003), Dansk udtale - øvebog, Forlaget Synope, ISBN 978-87-988509-4-6
- Torreblanca, Máximo (1988), "Latín Basium, Castellano Beso, Catalán Bes, Portugués Beijo", Hispanic Review, 56 (3): 343–348, doi:10.2307/474023, JSTOR 474023
- Vijūnas, Aurelijus (2010), "The Proto-Indo-European Sibilant */s/", Historische Sprachforschung, 123, Göttingen: 40–55, doi:10.13109/hisp.2010.123.1.40, ISSN 0935-3518
- Watson, Kevin (2007), "Liverpool English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 351–360, doi:10.1017/s0025100307003180
- Yavuz, Handan; Balcı, Ayla (2011), Turkish Phonology and Morphology (PDF), Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi, ISBN 978-975-06-0964-0[permanent dead link]
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25, retrieved 2015-04-12