Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak is traditionally locally referred to as Baba Foosa in China proper and as Nanak Lama in Tibet.^[1][2] In popular Sikh tradition, Guru Nanak is believed to have visited Tibet during his distant travels.^{[3]: 345–369} Nanak's travel itinerary through Tibet would have started by departing from Manikaran, onward to the Tibetan plateau, reaching Lahaul and Spiti (northeast of Kulu).^[4] Nanak would have travelled through both the Rohtang Pass and Chandan Kala Pass to reach Spiti.^[4] From there, Nanak went through the Sprang (Prang) Pass to reach Tibet through an old trade route between India and Tibet.^[4] Nanak would have then passed through both Chomurti and Boling to reach the sacred lake of Mansarovar, and finally Mount Kailash.^[4] Nanak would have encountered many members of the Siddha tradition on this route through Tibet.^[4] According to Sikh lore, in the area of lake Mansarovar and mount Kailash, a dialogue is said to have taken place between Siddhas residing in the location and Guru Nanak's retinue.^[5] They wanted to know how Guru Nanak had successfully traversed the mountainous landscape and terrain to reach the sacred area, with Guru Nanak replying that it was through faith in the divine.^[5] The Siddhas are then said to have posed questions to the guru about the state of affairs in the Indian subcontinent and the status of the commonfolk, in-which Guru Nanak responded that India was in-turmoil and suffering due to oppressive rulers.^[5] Guru Nanak then stated that true spirituality and religion was in-decline in India due to hypocrisy, prudishness, bribe-taking, and evil.^[5] In response to one of the questions posed by the Siddhas, Guru Nanak is said to have reprimanded them for escaping to this distant site away from the happenings of the subcontinent, leaving the masses behind without a spiritual guide.^[5]

Guru Gobind Singh

Guru Gobind Singh makes mention of China, Tibet, and Manchuria in the Dasam Granth, stating:^[6]

"Gorkhas sing thy praises, the residents of China and Manchuria bow their heads before thee and the Tibetans destroy their own sufferings by remembering thee. Those who meditate on thee obtain perfect glory, and prosper greatly. One cannot know thy limit, O Infinitely Glorious Lord! Thou art the Giver of all, therefore thou are Boundless."

— Guru Gobind Singh, Dasam Granth

Sikh professions in colonial China

Relationship between local Chinese and Sikhs in colonial China

Many of the local Shanghainese are said to have disliked the Sikh policemen of Shanghai, viewing them as abusers of the local population (specifically rickshaw drivers and hawkers) with little or no provocation, subjecting victims to shoe and baton beatings.^{[9]: 216–218} The Shanghainese derided the Sikh policemen as being "dogs" of their British overlords and called them "annoying red-hat flies".^{[9]: 216–218} Many Sikhs refused to eat food prepared by Chinese people based on caste-based beliefs.^[12] Due to this, interactions between the local Chinese and Sikh communities were limited and unintegrated with one another.^[12]

However, Claude Markovits remarked that these harsh actions by the Sikh policemen were necessary for keeping the locals in-check and obedient to the law. He specifically remarks that local rickshaw drivers tended to drive dangerously, posing risks to the surrounding traffic, and that the Chinese held little regard for laws and rules of the administration, often urinating and spitting in public areas.^{[9]: 216–218} Furthermore, Sikh policemen dispersed gangs of local Chinese engaging in gambling and fights.^{[9]: 216–218}

During the May Thirtieth Movement in 1925, Sikh policemen, alongside Chinese policemen, opened fire on anti-imperialist Chinese protesters at Louza Police Station on Nanjing Road, which led to many casualties, including nine fatalities.^[14] This incident triggered further unrest against foreigners and imperialism throughout China.^[14]

A local slur used against Sikhs developed based on the uniform of the Sikhs.^{[22]: 216–218 [10]: 153} The Shanghainese called Sikh policemen Hong Tou Ah-San (Shanghainese: 紅头阿三, romanized: hóngtóu ā sān, lit. 'red-headed number three'), which was in-reference to the Sikh policemen's red-turban (uniform worn by traffic wardens) and them being third in-rank on the hierarchal, social classification system (British as the first in-rank and the Chinese ranked second, Indians ranked third below both).^{[14][12][10]: 153} However, another theory is that the "a san" portion has nothing to do with the number three but rather is an imitation of how the Sikh policemen were addressed by the Shanghainese with the words "I say!" or "Oh sir!".^[10]: 153 The local Shanghainese also referred to Sikhs as "black devils" due to considering them as belonging to an "inferior race".^[11]

According to Cao Yin, the animosity that local Chinese people held against the Sikhs at the time was fueled by their internalized racial hierarchical categorization: the Chinese considered themselves temporarily "inferior" to the White race by the current circumstances (whilst believing that they had the potential to become equals to the White race) but as "superior" to the Indian race, thus Sikhs being in a position of power as policemen over "superior" Chinese people fueled their hatred toward them.^[11] Colourism also played a role, since Sikhs tended to be darker-skinned than the Chinese.^[11]

According to Claude Markovitz, since most Sikh men in China were bachelors or had left their wives back in India, many of them had to turn to local prostitutes to satisfy their sexual and emotional needs.^{[9]: 219–220} Most Sikh men visiting prostitutes were clients of ethnic Chinese prostitutes, as their rates were affordable for them.^{[9]: 219–220} However, a minority of the Sikh men in China found deeper connections and actual romance with local Chinese women, with some even going as far as marrying a local Chinese woman in many cases.^{[9]: 219–220} The mixed-race children of such couples were very stigmatized as both the Indian and Chinese community at the time looked down upon interracial marriages.^{[9]: 219–220} Markovitz further claims that Sikh men in China tended to do well with local women due to their attractive physiques.^{[9]: 219–220}

Sikh women in colonial China

In the 1940's, Princess Sumair, who claimed to be a familial relative of maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala State, she also claimed to be the cousin of famous Sikh painter Amrita Shergil, resided in Shanghai during the period of Japanese-occupation and lived a scandalous lifestyle focused on money, fashion and men.^{[note 1][12][23][24][25]} She was described as a "nymphomaniac" and "worshipper of lesbian cult" by Bernard Wasserstein in Secret War in Shanghai.^[12] She arrived in Shanghai in July 1940 after being disowned by her family due to her reportedly "loose morals" and her real name was Rajkumari Sumair Apjit Singh.^[26] She became entangled with the Axis during her time in Shanghai.^[26] She was bisexual and bigamous, as she married a Japanese-American man without divorcing her Indian husband.^[12][27] It is rumoured she eloped with an American soldier and disappeared from Shanghai.^[12] However, later events of her life in Europe and America are on historical record, where she worked as a fashion designer.^[26]

Sikh women also resided with their Sikh husbands during the colonial-era of Shanghai.^[12] Most Sikh soldiers in Shanghai arrived as bachelors, however some were already married and would bring their wives with them to Shanghai at a later date.^[12] The lives of Sikh women in Shanghai during the colonial period was centred on the gurdwara for their socialization and communal needs.^[12] The Indian clothing (such as the shalwar kameez and dupatta) worn by Sikh women in Shanghai are said to have aroused the curiosity of local Chinese onlookers.^[12] However, since their husbands were "symbols of oppression" in Shanghai, there were barriers between the local Chinese and Sikh women.^[12]

Sikh revolutionary activities in colonial China

Many Shanghai-based Sikhs were pro-Indian revolutionaries, being supporters of the Ghadar Party and also of the Indian National Army.^[21][11] During the 1920's and 1930's, Shanghai-based Sikhs also helped the Chinese nationalist movement by trying to overthrow British hegemony in Shanghai and shutting down British activities in the city.^[11]

According to Yin Cao, the role that Shanghai-based Sikhs played in both the Indian independence movement and Chinese nationalist movement has been disregarded by both the national histories of modern India and China.^[11] According to him, the Chinese national history focuses on the contributions made by the Chinese themselves, ignoring non-Chinese who assisted with their nationalist movement.^[11] Meanwhile, the Indian national history focuses on the efforts of the Indian National Congress, and ignores the efforts of the Sikh diaspora in the independence movement.^[11]

• Photograph of a Jatha (band) of Shanghai-based Sikhs who came to Punjab to participate in the Jaito Morcha of February 1924.