Valency
Valency is defined as "the number and type of bonds which the verb may form with a number of dependent elements referred to as arguments".[6] Valency change is the number of arguments controlled by a verbal predicate. While there are two types of valency change, reducing and increasing, after analyzing Sandalo's data it appears that Kadiweu has an increasing valency change. This author uses valency change to refer to the syntactically relevant components of meaning specified in the lexicon of Kadiweu.[6] She claims that the [+cause] and [+become] features of the language must be added as suffixes in order for the verb to become a predicate. She proposes that the suffixes operate by adding or deleting the [+cause] and or [+become] feature.
For example, as seen in example 278 below, the root is a verb. However, in example 279 a suffix that denotes [+cause] is added which changes the meaning of the sentence.
(278)
jajipa
j-ajipa
1SG.SUBJ-listen
jajipa
j-ajipa
1SG.SUBJ-listen
'I listen.' [7]
(279)
jataqatidi
j-ataGa-ti-d
1SG.SUBJ-bamboo-[+cause]-ATEL
jataqatidi
j-ataGa-ti-d
1SG.SUBJ-bamboo-[+cause]-ATEL
'I do bamboo searching.' [7]
She claims that verbs are lexically specified for [+cause] and [+become] and that they fit into three categories. The first category is monovalent verbs, where there is only one semantic argument and it consists of both unergative verbs and unaccusative verbs. An example of a monovalent verb is seen in example (280) below. It is important to note that non-accusative verbs only take an internal argument, and within their semantics is something that undergoes a change of state, ([+become]). However, non-ergative verbs take an external argument, and the idea of something causing what is being expressed ([+cause]) is expressed in their meaning. As a result, the implied meaning in the example below is 'I cause yelling' rather than just 'I yell'.
(280)
japawa
j-apawa
1SG.SUBJ-yell
japawa
j-apawa
1SG.SUBJ-yell
'I yell.' [I cause yelling] [8]
The second category is bivalent verbs, which make an obligatory reference to the subject and cause of become. For example, the author shows how the verb "eat" can also be a bivalent verb because it requires two semantic arguments, as seen in example (282) below. Sandalo expresses the action of bivalent verbs as an equation which states "x cause y become STATE." This formula is shown in the implied meaning 'I cause guava (to) become eaten':
(282)
jeligo
j-eligo
1SG.SUBJ-eat
e: jeligo wayaba.
e:m j-eligo wayaba
1.PN 1SG.SUBJ-eat guava
'I eat guava.' [I cause guava (to) become eaten] [9]
The third category is trivalent verbs which make an obligatory reference to a third party argument. The formula Sandalo uses to explain these verbs is: x cause y become LOCATION. This formula is explained in example (283) below
(283)
jajigotGawa
j-ajigo-t+Ga-wa
1SG.SUBJ-give-REL+2SG.CL-DAT
aqa:m:i jajigotGawa Gatodi
aqa:m:i j-ajigo-t+Ga-wa Gatodi
2.PN 1SG.SUBJ-give-REL+2SG.CL-DAT toucan
'I give the toucan to you.' [I cause the toucan become transferred to you] [9]
In Kadiweu, suffixes can be added to the verb to alter the meaning of the verb. Sandalo identifies four types of suffixes that can be added:
- [+cause]
- [-cause]
- [+become]
- [-beccome]
By adding these suffixes to a verb, valency change occurs. For example, in example (284) below a bare root is shown. Since it is non-accusative, the implied meaning contains [+become] thus making it 'his knife becomes sharpened'. However, in example (285) when the [+cause] suffix -Gad is added to the non-accusative verb it creates a bivalent (x cause y become STATE) verb:
(284)
lod:ajo
l-od:ajo
3.POSS-knife
dal:epe
y-d:-al:epe
3SG.SUBJ-theme-sharp
lod:ajo dal:epe
l-od:ajo y-d:-al:epe
3.POSS-knife 3SG.SUBJ-theme-sharp
'His knife is sharp.' [His knife becomes sharpened] [10]
(285)
jal:epeGadi
j-al:epe-Gad
1SG.SUBJ-sharp-[+cause]
lod:a:jo.
l-od:a:jo
3.POSS-knife
jal:epeGadi lod:a:jo.
j-al:epe-Gad l-od:a:jo
1SG.SUBJ-sharp-[+cause] 3.POSS-knife
'I sharpen his knife.' [I cause his knife (to) become sharpened] [10]
In conclusion, while Sandalo does not explicitly state that this is an increasing valency change, she identifies a causative suffix which is a typical valency-increasing device. As a result, Kadiweu uses these various suffixes to express valency change.
Tense
According to Sandalo, Kadiweu "has no tense markers" but rather aspect, which is marked on the verb. These aspects mark the duration or type of temporal activity. In Kadiweu, there are seven aspectual markers:
- completive
- incompletive
- durative
- telic
- atelic
- repetitive
- intensive
The first aspect, completive, marked with, jaG+, means that the event has been completed.
an:ati
a-n-na-d-i
2SG.SUBJ-hither-see-ATEL-PL
jajopi.
jaG+j-opil
COMPL+1SG.SUBJ-go.away
nige an:ati Gatodi oda jajopi.
nige a-n-na-d-i Gatodi oda jaG+j-opil
COMP 2SG.SUBJ-hither-see-ATEL-PL toucan then COMPL+1SG.SUBJ-go.away
'When you see a toucan, I will have gone away.' [11]
The second aspect, incompletive, bGa+, is added when the event is not complete but the event has not taken place yet.
enagi
y-ane-g
3SG.SUBJ-come-TLC
bGajawaligi.
bGa+j-awaligi
INCOMPL+1SG.SUBJ-walk
nige daGa enagi dom:ojya natigi nigoy, bGajawaligi.
nige daGa y-ane-g dom:ojya natigi nigoy bGa+j-awaligi
COMP NEG 3SG.SUBJ-come-TLC car next morning INCOMPL+1SG.SUBJ-walk
'If the car does not come tomorrow, I will walk away.' [12]
The third aspect, durative, marked by banaGa+, which stresses the event occurring, regardless of when it and if it will happen.
datyodi.
y-d:atyo-d
3SG.SUBJ-theme-rain-ATEL
banaGa datyodi.
banaGa y-d:atyo-d
DUR 3SG.SUBJ-theme-rain-ATEL
'It is raining.' [13]
The fourth, being telic events, have a clear terminal point. These events are marked by the suffix -g.
jicigitike.
j-ici-g-t+ke
1SG.SUBJ-pull-TLC-REL+outward
jicigitike.
j-ici-g-t+ke
1SG.SUBJ-pull-TLC-REL+outward
'I pulled it away.' [14]
The fifth are atelic events, which are marked by -d. This aspect has no natural point.
id:icitike.
i-d:-ici-t+ke
1SG.OBJ-theme-pull-REL+outward
id:icitike.
i-d:-ici-t+ke
1SG.OBJ-theme-pull-REL+outward
'I was pulled back and forth.' [15]
For the sixth and seventh aspects, repetitive and intensive, marked by +ak and +bigi, the author does not explain or go into detail about it.